Women in the workforce earning wages or salaries is part of a modern phenomenon, evolving along with the growth of paid work for men, but women have been challenged by inequalities in the workforce. Until modern times, the legal and cultural practices of the necessary example , combined with the inexorability of religious conventions and old education, restrict the entry of women and participation in the labor force. The economic dependence on men, and consequently the poor socio-economic status of women, has the same impact, especially since work has become professional in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Lack of women's access to higher education has effectively ruled them out of high-paying and high status work practices. The inclusion of women into higher professions such as law and medicine is delayed in most countries because women are denied entry to universities and qualifications for a degree; for example, the University of Cambridge had only a degree fully validated for women at the end of 1947, and that was only after much opposition and fierce debate. Women are largely confined to low-paid and poor status jobs for most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, or receive lower wages than men for doing the same job. However, until the 20th century, public perceptions of paid employment shifted needed resources as labor shifted to office work that did not require heavy work, and women increasingly gained higher education leading to better compensation , long-term careers rather than lower, more skilled and short-term jobs. Nevertheless, women are still harmed compared to men because of motherly how? . Women are seen as the primary caregivers for children to this day, the resources needed, so that the payouts are lowered when they have children because businesses do not expect them to stay long after birth needed resources <./sup>.
The increasing number of women contributing to the workforce has led to more evenly distributed working hours throughout the world. However, in Western European countries the nature of female labor participation remains very different from that of men.
Although access to paid employment ("labor") has been and remains uneven in many jobs and places around the world, experts sometimes distinguish between "work" and "pay work", including in their analysis of a wider spectrum of labor not compensated household chores, childcare, parental care, and family subsistence agriculture.
Video Women in the workforce
Area studi
When the Civil War raged in the USA, Virginia Penny from Louisville, Kentucky was finishing his research project and publishing a book that solved the problem, How women can earn money married or single, in all branches of art and science, profession, commerce, agriculture and pursuit mechanical (Philadelphia, 1862). Hoping to offer hard facts about what women will face in the workforce, Penny has interviewed thousands of entrepreneurs, using surveys both by postal mail and in person - when she will also interview the workers. Many of his site visits were made in Philadelphia, New York and Boston. She screened her research to enroll more than 500 jobs open to women as well as information about jobs and potential availability for women. He also pointed out when employers offered their reasons for differences in wages by sex. He devoted his book "to decent and diligent women in the United States, striving to earn a living," and this book attracts a lot of attention by reviewers and scholars across the country. He sold his rights to the book to another publisher who made it an encyclopedia, The Employment of Women: A Cyclopaedia of Woman's Work, in 1863. It sold better after it was re-titled again in 1870 as < i> How Women Can Make Money, Marry, or Single . In total, several different versions of this book ended with 36 editions published between 1862 and 2006, and six editions of adaptation in German (first published in 1867).
In the 20th century, gender division of labor has been studied most systematically in women's studies (especially women's history, which often examines the history and biography of women's participation in a particular field) and gender studies more broadly. Job studies, such as medical history or professional studies, also examine gender questions, and the role of women in the history of certain fields. Women dominate as accountants, auditors, and psychologists.
In addition, modern civil rights law has frequently examined gender restrictions on access to the occupation field, gender discrimination in one area, and gender harassment in a particular workplace. This legal entity is called employment discrimination law, and gender and racial discrimination is the largest sub-section in the region. Laws specifically aimed at preventing discrimination against women have been continued in many countries, see, for example, the United States Pregnancy Discrimination Act.
Maps Women in the workforce
Work paid globally
Women still contribute to their communities in many areas mainly through agricultural work. In South Asia, West Asia, and Africa, only 20% of women work in paid non-farm jobs. Worldwide, the level of women's wage employment outside agriculture grew by 41% in 2008.
One of the main forms of paid employment for women around the world is actually one of the traditional, ie "hawkers" markets. Women have worked outdoors as traders in the market since ancient times in many parts of the world, such as Central America, South Asia, and Africa.
During the 20th century, the most significant global shifts in women-paid employment stem from the spread of global travel and the development of large migrant domestic workers of female domestic workers seeking employment outside their home country. The Philippines is the main source of female domestic workers. Before the 1990s, the majority of Filipinos working outside the Philippines were male, but by 2012, an estimated 63% of Filipinos working abroad are women.
Estimates of Filipino women working abroad amount to millions. More than 138,000 new domestic workers obtain permission to work abroad in 2012, a figure that grew 12% from a year earlier. Employment abroad often results in women leaving their own children in the Philippines to be cared for by the family. Domestic workers from the Philippines and other countries have also undergone extreme sexual exploitation and abuse and money, for example in some Middle Eastern countries, where they are often employed. It is estimated that remittances from overseas workers (male and female) carry $ 1 billion (USD) per month to the Philippines.
Labor-sector participation by sector
Women and men often participate in the economic sector in very different proportions, the result of gender groupings in work. The reasons for this may include traditional associations of certain types of work with specific gender. There are other economic, social, and cultural variables that may affect the distribution of gender in different occupations, including within a region or country. The average statistics collected by the United Nations for 2004 to 2007 reflect these differences (total may not add up to 100% due to rounding):
Sectoral distribution of employed persons, by sector and sex (2004 to 2007)
More detailed statistics show a big difference even in this region. For example, 11% of women working in East Asia work in agriculture, an increase of 55% in South Asia; 70% of women in South Africa work in the service sector, while in East, Central and West Africa this number is 26%.
Job Dissimilarity Index
Job choices are considered as one of the key factors contributing to male-female wage differences. In other words, a career with a majority of female employees tends to pay lower than a career that employs a majority of men. This differs from direct wage discrimination in employment, as men in women-dominated professions will also make lower-than-average wages and women in male-dominated jobs typically make wages higher than average. The job inequality index is a measure of 0 to 100, measuring the percentage of workers who need to be reassembled to the work normally done by the opposite sex so the differential wage disappears. In 1960, the index of inequality for the United States was measured at number 62. It has declined since then, but at 47 in 2000, it is still one of the highest of the developed countries.
Organizations created by Women for rights
In the nineteenth century women became involved in organizations dedicated to social reform. In 1903, the League of Women National Workers (WTUL) was formed to advocate for wage increases and working conditions for women. In 1920, the Women's Bureau of the Ministry of Manpower was formed to create equal rights and a safe workplace for women. In 1956 a group called Financial Women's Association (FWA) was formed. This is an organization founded by a group of Wall Street women. The objectives are: to advance professionalism in finance and in the financial services industry with particular emphasis on women's roles and development, to achieve greater recognition for women's achievement in business, and to encourage women to seek career opportunities in finance and business. In 1966 the National Women's Organization (NOW) was founded by a group of feminists including Betty Friedan. The largest women's rights group in the US, NOW seeks to end sexual discrimination, especially in the workplace, by lobbying for legislative, litigation, and public demonstrations. NOW has 500,000 contributing members and 550 chapters in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Founded in 1972, the National Association of Female Executives (NAFE) provides education, networking and public advocacy to empower its members to achieve career success and financial security. Its members are women executives, business owners, entrepreneurs and others committed to the NAFE mission: women's progress in the workplace. Many of these organizations lead to legal action and protect the rights of women as workers and empower women in the workplace.
Law protecting women's rights as workers
International law protecting the rights of women as workers exists through the efforts of various international bodies. On June 16, 2011, the International Labor Organization (ILO) passed the Domestic Workers Convention C189, 2011, which binds the signatories to regulations aimed at ending the violations of migrant domestic workers. It is anticipated that the Convention will put pressure on non-ratifying states to support changes to their own laws to meet changes in international standards protecting domestic workers. Also in 2011, the Hong Kong High Court enacted a law preventing domestic workers from having the right of residence afforded to other foreign workers, an act affecting about 100,000 domestic workers in Hong Kong.
The ILO has previously ratified the Equal Remuneration Convention in 1951, which came into force in 1953, the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, which entered into force in 1960 and the Convention on the Protection of Childbirth, 2000, enacted in 2002. In 1966, the General Assembly The UN adopted the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which came into force in 1976. UNESCO also adopted the Convention against Discrimination in Education in 1960, which came into force in 1962. The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations, entered into force in 2003. The Housing Convention, adopted by the ILO, came into force in 2000. This Convention protects the rights of persons performing paid work outside their homes, often are female workers. It offers equal protection regarding working conditions, safety, payroll, social security coverage, access to training, minimum age of employment, and protection of pregnancy.
Trafficking often targets young women who are kidnapped and sent out of their own country to work as domestic workers, often under extreme exploitation conditions. A number of international laws have been ratified to deal with trafficking in women and children.
But these laws are not enforced.
Rights and Childcare Rights - Protective measures for Pregnancy are enforced to ensure that women will not be discriminated against in the workplace once they return from having children. Nor should they be exposed to health hazards when they are pregnant and at work. They are also allowed leave for maternity leave, allowing them to be tied to their child and this aspect of development is very important for the baby to get the right attachment skills. Entrepreneurs are expected to hold this policy. However, many women who take maternity leave receive very little time to allow for their health along with their baby's health. The amount of time allowed for maternity leave and the payment of maternity leave varies by country, with Sweden having the longest number of 68 weeks and the United States being one of the worst by typically being 12 weeks unpaid. (Burn, S. M. (2005) Cross-cultural women: Global perspective New York: McGraw-Hill.)
Women in labor leadership
Female decision makers from across Europe are organized into several national and European networks. This network aims to promote women in decision-making positions in politics and economics throughout Europe. The network was founded in the 1980s and is often very different from the "service clubs" established in the early days of this century, such as Soroptimist and Zontas.
"Women in Management" is about women in business in a predominantly male-dominated area. Their motivation, their ideas and their leadership style and their ability to enter leadership positions are the subject of most of the different networks.
In 2009, women represented 20.9% of parliaments in Europe (second homes) and 18.4% of the world average.
In 2009, 90 women served in the US Congress: 18 women serving in the Senate, and 73 women serving in the DPR Women holding about three percent of executive positions.
In the private sector, men still represent 9 out of 10 board members in European blue-chip companies, The difference is very broad at the very top: only 3% of these companies have a woman who heads the highest decision-making body.
List of members of the European Women's Network in Decision-making in Politics and Economics:
- Women's Elected Committee of Local and Regional Authorities (City Council and European Region)
- European BPW, Business and Professional Women - Europe
- Association of Mediterranean Employers' Organizations
- Women's Network Eurochambres
- European Women's Platform
- The Parliamentary Committee Network for Equal Opportunities for Women and Men in the European Union
- The European Network to Promote Entrepreneurship Women
- European Women's Lobby
- The European Women's Barristers Association
- The CEE Network for Gender Problems
- European Women's Inventors and Network Innovators
- European Women's Management Development Network, EWMD
- Femanet - Eurocadres
- European Professional Women's Network, EPWN
- Women's Forum for Economy and Society
The EU Commission has created a platform for all these networks. It also funded the Women to the Top program in 2003-2005 to bring more women into top management.
Several organizations have been created to promote women's presence in the top responsibilities, in politics and business. One example is the European EWMD Women Management Development (quoted above), a network of individual members and European and international companies, drawn from professional organizations. Members come from all areas of business, education, politics, and culture.
Women born in the upper classes rather than the middle or lower classes have a much better chance of holding higher positions of power in the workforce if they choose to enter.
Obstacles to equal participation
Since gender roles have followed the formation of agricultural societies and then industry, newly developed professions and occupation fields have been frequently influenced by gender. Some examples of how gender influences fields include:
- Prohibition or restriction on a particular gender member enters the field or studies the field;
- Discrimination in a field, including wage, management, and prestige hierarchies;
- The hope that mothers, not fathers, should be the primary provider of parenting.
Note that these gender restrictions may not be universal in time and place, and that they operate to restrict both men and women. However, in practice, norms and laws have historically restricted women's access to certain jobs, law and civil rights cases thus focusing primarily on equal access and participation by women in the workforce. These barriers can also be manifested in hidden biases and through many microinquities.
Many women face problems with sexual harassment while working in agriculture as well. Many women working in this field are undocumented so that supervisors or other male workers can take advantage of it. These women may be sexually abused to defend their work and they can not report the incident to the police due to the fact that they are documented to be raised and deportable.
Access to education and training
A number of jobs became "professionalized" through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, gaining regulatory bodies, and passing laws or regulations requiring certain higher education requirements. Because women's access to higher education is often limited, this effectively limits women's participation in this professional work. For example, women were strictly prohibited from entering the University of Cambridge until 1868, and burdened with restrictions until 1987 when the university adopted a policy of equal opportunity. Many other institutions in the United States and Western Europe began to open their doors to women during the same period of time, but access to higher education remains an important barrier to the full participation of women in the labor force in developing countries. Even when formal access to higher education is available, women's access to employment options is limited where access to basic education is restricted through social customs.
Access to capital
Women's access to jobs that require capital expenditure is also hampered by unequal access (statistically) to capital, affecting jobs such as employers and small business owners, land ownership, and investors. Many microloan programs seek to remedy this imbalance, targeting women for loans or grants to establish new businesses or farms, having determined that targeted assistance to women can disproportionately benefit a country's economy. Although research has shown that women grow more than half of the world's food - in sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean, women are responsible for up to 80% of food production - most of the work is family subsistence labor, and often family-owned by men in family.
Discrimination in employment
The idea that men and women are naturally suited for different jobs is known as horizontal segregation.
Statistical discrimination in the workplace is unintentional discrimination based on the alleged possibility that a worker will or will not remain with the company for long periods of time. Especially for women, because employers believe that women are more likely to get out of the labor force to have children, or work part-time when they raise children, this tends to hurt their chances for job advancement. They are passed for promotion because of the possibility that they might leave, and in some cases are placed in positions with little chance for upward mobility to start on the same stereotype.
Women continue to earn less money than men, despite setting equal wage laws.
According to race, Class, and Gender: An Anthology, women have a higher risk of financial loss in modern society than men. Statistical findings indicate that women are under-paid for similar jobs, complete despite having the same qualifications. The statistics collected by the US Department of Labor show that women are discriminated against in the workforce by sex. The textbook reads, "Women's wages are also more unstable than men's wages, and women face much higher risks to see greater income decline than men" (Kennedy 2008). Anderson clearly showed a significant difference between men and women in the world of work in terms of payment. Women are left more vulnerable to financial ruin and unemployment. The textbook also mentions that women often provide public positions versus personal or leadership positions despite having the appropriate work experience, higher education, or skills required to qualify. According to the Joint Economic Committee, "Among the women headed households, the unemployment rate has increased and is higher than the national unemployment rate and twice higher than for married men or married women" (Joint Economic Committee, 2009). In other words, an unmarried woman who is the head of a household is more vulnerable to financial losses than married men or women. Women's unemployment rates versus men show that single women are discriminated against by sex. Anderson writes, "All women are disproportionately at risk in the current foreclosure crisis, as women are 32% more likely than males to have subprime mortgages (One-third of females, compared with a quarter of men, have subprime mortgages; women and men increase in high-income groups) "(Anderson 265). Statistical information illustrates the dramatic differences between men and women in financial terms. It can be concluded that men are preferred in the world of work than women. Women are discriminated against by their sex and thus more likely to struggle financially because of discriminating employers.
Action and inaction of the woman herself
Through a process known as "grouping employees," employees tend to be grouped throughout the workplace both spatially and socially with people of similar status work. Women are no exception and tend to be grouped with other women who generate comparable amounts of money. They compare wages with women around them and believe their salary is fair because they are average. Some women are satisfied with the lack of equality of wages with men in the same position because they do not realize how broad the inequality is.
In addition, women as a whole tend to be less assertive and confrontational. One factor contributing to the higher proportion of increases in men is the simple fact that men tend to ask for a raise more often than women, and are more aggressive when doing so. Women and men, socialized at a young age into these roles. School-age boys and girls have been recorded as enacting the same aggressive and passive characteristics, respectively, in the educational settings we see in adults at work. Boys are more likely to be competitive in schools, and sports, to be dominant. The idea that "winning is everything" is not emphasized at the same level for girls and therefore they tend to seek recognition for their work.
The additional problem contributing to income disparities by sex is that women are far more likely than men to take "breaks" in their careers to have children, often left over from labor for long periods, while men in roles or work (or other women who do not leave the workforce) are likely to continue to earn promotions and/or performance-based pay increases. When a woman in this scenario enters the workforce, she may be offered a smaller salary or a lower position than she might have if she keeps working with her colleagues (both male and female) who do not interfere with their careers.
In the last 50 years there have been major changes toward gender equality in industrialized countries like the United States. With the feminist movement of the 1960s, women began to enter the workforce in large numbers. Women also had high labor market participation during World War II because so many soldiers left, women had to take jobs to support their families and keep their local economies on track. Many of these women fall back from the workforce when people come home from war to raise children born in baby boomers. In the late 1960s when women began to enter the labor force in large numbers, they entered in addition to all men, as opposed to replacing men during the war. The dynamic shift from one-to-two-income households dramatically altered the socio-economic class system of industrialized nations in the postwar period.
Effect on middle and top classes
The addition of women into the workforce is one of the key factors that have increased social mobility over the last 50 years, although this has stalled in recent decades for both sexes. Girls from the middle and upper classes have increased access to higher education, and thanks to equality of employment, are able to achieve high-paying jobs and higher prestige than ever before. Due to the dramatic increase in the availability of birth control, these high status women can delay marriage and childbirth until they complete their education and elevate their careers to the position they want. In 2001, a survey on sexual harassment at work was conducted by Sakshi non-profit women among 2,410 respondents in the government and non-government sectors, in five states accounting for 53 percent saying that both sexes did not get the same chance, 50 percent of women is treated unfairly by employers and co-workers, 59 percent have heard statements or sexist jokes, 32 percent have been exposed to pornography or literature that demeans women.
Compared to other sectors, IT organizations may offer the same salary to women and the density of women in technology companies may be relatively high but this does not necessarily ensure a level playing field. For example, Microsoft (AS) is sued for the behavior of one of his superiors by e-mail. The superintendent allegedly made sexual offensive comments via e-mail, as he called himself "the president of an amateur gynecological club." He also allegedly referred to the plaintiff as "Queen of Spandex." E-harassment is not the only form of harassment.In 1999, Juno Online faced two separate suits from former employees who alleged that they were told they would be fired if they violated the ongoing relationship with senior executives, Pseudo Programs, a Manhattan-based Internet TV network, were sued in January 2000 after male workers referred female employees to "bimbo" and forced them to view sexually explicit material on the Internet.The HR manager admitted that women were discriminated against senior board positions and pregnant women are rarely employed but only privately.In addition, it has been suggested that there are fewer women in the IT sector because of the existing stereotypes that portray the sector, male-oriented In the latest book, It has: Leadership Lesson From Women Who Do It, author Aparna Jain interviewed 200 women in senior management positions and leadership in the major Ind on issues they encountered at work and noted that 86% of the women he spoke to were harassed in one form or another. Among the issues he noted were bias, bullying, sexual harassment, and maternal impact on women's careers. Recently a sexual harassment lawsuit against a senior member shocked India's IT sector, such as the case of sexual harassment of Taj Hotels Resorts and Palace (Taj Group) CEO Rakesh Sarna. A surprising example of the institutional mechanisms that allow the unrestricted environment for sexual harassment to get worse is the Rajendra K. Pachauri scandal at The Energy and Resources Institute in India. Improvements in the education system can be key to encouraging women to take a role in this sector.
Recognizing the invisible nature of power structures that marginalize women in the workplace, the Supreme Court in prominent Varkhais versus the Rajasthan High Court (1997) identifies sexual harassment as a violation of women's rights to equality in the workplace and broadens the scope of its definition.. The ruling identifies a hostile work environment in the same field as a direct request for sexual assistance. Quote: "Sexual harassment includes unwanted sexually determined behavior (either directly or implicitly) as: physical contact and progress, request or request for sexual pleasure, sexual expression, display of pornography, all physical, verbal or non - Other unwanted physiques of verbal behavior of sexual nature ". Decisions mandating appropriate working conditions should be provided for employment, recreation, health, and hygiene to better ensure that there is no hostile environment for women in the workplace and no female employee should have reasonable reasons to believe that he or she is disadvantaged in respect of with him. work.
Thus, this law precisely shifts responsibility to employers to ensure employee safety but most medium-sized services technology firms do not enforce sexual harassment policies. Acknowledging K Chandan, an advocate from Chandan Associates, "I have several IT clients.When I point out the need for a policy of sexual harassment, most tend to ignore or ignore it.This is not high on the agenda." The HR manager of India's premier technology company said: "I will use the recent case to push for the policy." Previously the draft proposal was rejected by the company. " However, another HR manager from a leading company of India's leading business house, who does not understand the irony of his statement, admits that the company has a grievance redress mechanism but no on-site sexual harassment policy. A loose attitude violates a Supreme Court ruling in which the Court not only defines sexual harassment, but also establishes a code of conduct for the workplace to prevent and punish it. "Employers or other authorities responsible in the public or private sector must comply with the following guidelines: strictly to be notified and circulated, private entrepreneurs must enter the prohibition of sexual harassment in standing orders under the Standing Orders Act of 1946. "As for the complaint procedure, not less than half of its members must be women. The grievance committee should include an NGO or other organization familiar with the issue of sexual harassment. When a violation occurs due to an error in the rules of the service, the proper disciplinary action must begin. When such behavior is a violation under Indian Criminal Code, employers must initiate action by filing a complaint with the appropriate authority. However, a survey by Sakshi revealed 58 percent of women do not know the Supreme Court's guidelines on the matter. A random survey by AssureConsulting.com among hundreds of employees working in the IT industry revealed a surprising result: Less than 10 percent are familiar with corporate sexual harassment laws or policies. Surprisingly, certain HR managers also do not know about Supreme Court guidelines or Draft Bill by the National Commission on Women for sexual harassment in the workplace.
Not surprisingly, many cases are not reported. However, given the complexity involved, company policy is the first step and can not get rid of the problem. Said Savita HR Manager at Icelerate Technologies, "We have a policy of sexual harassment circulating among employees and the company will not tolerate every case that comes to notice but the man at home is no different from the person in the office," thus implying a social mindset which discriminates women responsible for this issue. Considering sexual censorship and conservative social attitudes that emphasize "women's purity," the victims dare not attract attention for fear of being labeled as women with "loose morale". Women prefer to get rid of problems or leave work quietly rather than talking, even within organizations that have zero tolerance policies. Chandan said, "I do not have the right statistics but from my experience as an advocate in 1,500 reported cases." The problem can not be solved until more women speak but the social set-up touches the women into silence. The social stigma against victims and the prolonged trial of justice prevents most women from raising their votes. Purports K Chandan "It may take between three and five years to complete a case, and in situations where the harassment is shrouded, evidence is difficult to collect and there is no guarantee that the verdict will support the victim In one of the cases I rarely handle Country Manager accused and the plaintiff chose to leave the court. "
Effects on the working class
Women working with lower wages are more likely to be subject to wage discrimination. They are more likely to bring home much less than their male counterparts with equal employment status, and get less help with housework than their husbands rather than high-income women. Women with low levels of education enter the labor force in large numbers decrease income for some men, as women bring more competition to the job. Men's relatively low incomes and increased birth control make the prospect of marriage more difficult for low-income women.
For the first time in the country's history, there is a distinctive socio-economic stratification among women as it has been around men for centuries. This deepens the inequalities between upper and lower classes/work/jobs. Before the feminist movement, the socio-economic status of a family was based solely on the occupation of the husband/father. Women who now earn high-status jobs are attractive couples for men with high-status jobs, so high-income people marry high-income and low-income people marry low-income people. In other words, the rich get richer and the poor remain the same, and experience increasing difficulties in the economy.
Problem impact of women's participation in labor force
A 2008 study published in the British Medical Journal found that women were 46% more likely to call in sickness for a short period of time than men and one-third more likely than men to take short term sick leave. At 60 days or more, men and women are equal in terms of sick leave. Women in the workforce have tripled and as their numbers increase, it is difficult for mothers and fathers to be able to care for their own newborn children or sick family members. The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 has allowed workers to have up to 12 weeks a year to leave work.
Fertility
Increased female participation in the workforce is associated with decreased fertility. A cross-country panel study found the effect of this fertility factor to be the strongest among women aged 20-39, but with a less powerful but persistent effect among older women as well. International United Nations data show that women who work because of economic needs have higher fertility than those who work because they want to do it.
However, for countries in the OECD region, increased female labor participation is associated with increased fertility.
Causality analysis shows that fertility rates affect female labor participation and not as much as the other way around.
Regarding the type of work, women working in professional care such as teaching and health generally have children at an earlier age. It is theorized that women often select themselves into jobs with a favorable working life balance to combine mom and job.
History
19th century
Women have been working in agricultural work since ancient times, and continue to do it all over the world. The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th century changed the nature of work in Europe and other countries in the Western world. Working for wages, and ultimately salary, becomes part of urban life. Initially, the women were found to even do the hardest physical work, including working as a "barrier" hauling heavy coal carts through a mine pit in England, a job that also employed many children. This ended after government intervention and ratification of the Mining Act and Collieries 1842, an early attempt to organize the workplace.
During the 19th century, an increasing number of women in Western countries took jobs in factories, such as textile factories, or on assembly lines for machinery or other goods. Women also work as "hawkers" of products, flowers, and other market goods, and breed small animals in working-class areas of London. Piecework, involving sewing (weaving, embroidery, wool winding or silk) paid for by the piece, is the most common work for women in the 19th century Britain. It is low paid, and involves long hours, up to 14 hours per day to earn enough wages to survive. Working class women are usually involved in some form of paid work, as it provides some assurance against the possibility that their husbands might become too ill or injured to support the family. During an era before workers' compensation for disability or illness, the loss of a husband's salary may result in the whole family being sent to a Victorian worker's home to repay debt.
Wage inequality is expected to occur in women. In 1906, the government found that the average weekly factory wage for a woman ranged from 11s 3d to 18s 8d, while the average weekly male wage was about 25s 9d. Employers state that they prefer to hire women, because they can be "more easily induced to experience severe physical fatigue than men". Parenting is another necessary cost for many women working in the factory. Pregnant women work until the day when they give birth and return to work as soon as they are physically capable. In 1891, a law was passed that required women to take four weeks of factory work after childbirth, but many women could not afford this unpaid leave, and the law was unworkable.
The US Census 1870 is the first US Census to calculate "Women engaged in every job" and provides an interesting picture of women's history. This reveals that, contrary to popular belief, not all American women in the 19th century did not live in middle-class homes or work in sweat factories. Women are 15% of the total workforce (1.8 million out of 12.5). They make up a third of the factory "operations", but teaching and sewing, hat, and sewing jobs play a bigger role. Two-thirds of teachers are women. Women can also be found in unexpected places such as iron and steel work (495), mines 46, sawmills 35, oil wells and refineries 40, gas work 4 and charcoal 5, and performed surprising work such as rig ships (16), field workers (196), turpentine workers (185), brass founders/workers 102, shingle and lathe makers (84), stock enthusiasts (45), guns and locksmiths (33), hunters and trappers (2).
20th century
At the beginning of the 20th century, women were regarded as guardians of the morality of society; they seem to have better qualities than men and are expected to act that way. Their role is not defined as a worker or money maker. Women are expected to hold on to their innocence until the right man arrives so they can start a family and instill the morality they bear to preserve. The role of men is to support the family financially. But at the turn of the 20th century, social attitudes toward the education of young women changed. Women in North America and Western Europe are now becoming increasingly educated, not least because of the pioneering efforts of women to continue their own education, opposing opposition by male educators. In 1900, four out of five colleges accepted women and the whole concept of female students was increasingly accepted.
In the United States, it was World War I that made room for women in the world of work, among other economic and social influences. Due to the increasing demand for production from Europe during the war raged, more women found themselves working outdoors.
In the first quarter of this century, most women occupied jobs in factories or as housemaids, but when the war ended, they could turn to jobs such as: department store salespeople as well as clerics, secretarial and other, so-called "collar jobs" lace". In July 1920, The New York Times ran a headline that read: "American women... Have lifted her skirt far beyond simple limits" that can be applied to more than fashion; women are now rolling up their sleeves and skirts and entering the workforce.
World War II created millions of jobs for women. Thousands of American women actually join the military: 140,000 in the WAC Army of Women (United States Army); 100,000 in the Navy (WAVE); 23,000 in the Marines; 14,000 at the Navy Nurse Corps and, 13,000 in the Coast Guard. Although almost no one sees the fighting, they replace men in non-combat positions and get paid the same as men would have on the same job. At the same time, more than 16 million people are leaving their jobs to join the war in Europe and elsewhere, opening up more opportunities and places for women to take over the workforce. Although two million women lost their jobs after the war ended, the participation of women in the workforce is still higher than before. In post-war America, women are expected to return to private life as housewives and children. Newspapers and magazines aimed at women encourage them to keep a neat house while their husbands go to work. These articles present the home as the right female domain, which is expected to run. However, work is still available for women. However, they are mostly known as "red collar" jobs such as retail employees and secretaries. Propaganda to encourage women back home is depicted in The Life and Times of Rosie the Riveter.
Calm Revolution
The rise of women in the labor force of Western countries gained momentum in the late nineteenth century. At this point women marry early and are determined by their marriage. If they enter the workforce, it's just because of necessity.
The first phase covers the time between the late 19th century and 1930s. This era gave birth to 'Independent female workers'. From 1890 to 1930, women in the world of work were usually young and unmarried. They have little or no learning in work and usually hold administrative and teaching positions. Many women also work in textile manufacturing or as domestic helpers. Women leave the workforce immediately when they get married, unless the family needs two income. Toward the end of the 1920s, when we entered the second phase, married women began to exit the workforce less and less. Labor productivity for married women aged 35-44 years increased by 15.5 percentage points from 10% to 25%. There is a greater demand for clerical positions and as the number of women graduating from high school increases, they begin to have more "respectable" and stable jobs. This phase has been correctly labeled as the Transition Era which refers to the period of time between 1930 and 1950. During this time the marriage discrimination institute, forcing women out of the workforce after marriage, is eliminated, enabling more participation in the work of single women's strengths and married. In addition, the participation of the female labor force increased as there was an increasing demand for office workers and women participating in the secondary school movement. However, women's work still depends on their husbands' incomes. Women usually do not work to meet personal needs to determine one's career and social value; they work out of necessity.
In the third phase, marking the "roots of the revolution" spanning the time from 1950 to the mid to late 1970s, the movement began to approach the warning signs of a revolution. Women's expectations for future work are changing. Women begin to see themselves go to college and work through their marriage and even attend graduate school. Yet many still have short and intermittent labor force participation, without having to hope for a "career". To illustrate, most women are secondary recipients, and work in "pink collar jobs" as secretaries, teachers, nurses, and librarians. The sexual harassment experienced by these pink collar workers is depicted in films 9 through 5. Although more women attend classes, it is often expected that they attend to find a partner - the so-called "M.R.S. degree". Nevertheless, the participation of the workforce by women still grows significantly.
The fourth phase, known as the "Calm Revolution", began in the late 1970s and continues to this day. Beginning in the 1970s, women began to flood the schools and graduate schools. They began to enter professions such as medicine, law, dental and business. More women are going to college and are expected to be employed at the age of 35, compared to past generations who only work intermittently due to marriage and childbirth. Increasing expectations of long-term profitable work is reflected in the change of majors adopted by women from the 1970s on. The percentage of women who majored in education has declined since the 1970s; education has become a popular department for women because it allows them to enter and exit the workforce when they have children and when their children grow up to a reasonable age where their mothers do not have to serve primarily as caregivers. In contrast, majors such as business and management increased in the 1970s, when women ventured into other areas once dominated by men. They experience the expansion of their horizons and the change from what it means to define their own identity. Women work before they get married, and because women get married in the future, they can define themselves before a serious relationship. Research shows that from 1965 to 2002, the increase in female labor force participation more than offset the decline for men.
The reason for this huge jump in the 1970s has been attributed by some scholars to broad access to birth control pills. While "pills" were available medically in the 1960s, many laws restricted access to them. See, for example, Griswold v. Connecticut , 381 US 479 (1965) (overturning Connecticut laws that prohibit access to contraception) and Eisenstadt v. Baird , 405 US 438 (1972)) (establishes the right of unmarried people to access contraception). In the 1970s, the majority age was downgraded from 21 to 18 in the United States, largely as a consequence of the Vietnam War; it also affects women's right to influence their own medical decisions. Since it is now socially acceptable to delay pregnancy even when married, women have the luxury to think of other things, such as education and employment. Also, since women electrification work around the house it becomes easier to leave them with more time to dedicate to school or work. Due to the multiplier effect, even if some women are not blessed with access to pills or electrification, many are followed by examples of other women entering the workforce for that reason. The Calm Revolution is so called because it is not a "big bang" revolution; on the contrary, it happens and continues to happen gradually.
Occupational safety and health
Women tend to have different occupational hazards and health problems than men in the workplace. Women get carpal tunnel syndrome, tendonitis, anxiety disorders, stress, respiratory diseases, and infectious diseases because their work is at a higher rate than men. The reasons for this difference may be differences in biology or in the work of women. Higher job-related stress levels in women may be due to the fact that women are often caregivers at home and do contingent work and employment contracts at a much higher rate than men. Another significant work hazard for women is murder, which is the second most frequent cause of death in women's occupations in 2011, which accounts for 26% of women's workplace deaths. Immigrant women are at higher risk for work-related injuries than native-born women in the United States, due to high levels of employment in hazardous industries.
Women are at lower risk for work-related deaths than men. However, personal protective equipment is usually designed for the typical proportion of men, which can create harm to women who have improper equipment. Women tend to report work-related injuries rather than men.
Research is under way in the dangers of work that may be specific to women. What is interesting is the potential environmental causes of breast cancer and cervical cancer. Sexual harassment is a work hazard for many women, and can cause serious negative symptoms including anxiety, depression, nausea, headaches, insomnia, and feelings of inferiority and alienation. Women are also at higher risk of work-related stress, which can be caused by a parental or caregiver balance with work.
See also
- Workplace feminization
- Rosie the Riveter
- Women's history
- Empowering women
- Women's rights
- Women study
- Gender studies
- Workplace discrimination, work sexism, and Glass ceilings
- Work history
- Education Gap
- Women's rights timeline (other than voting)
- Parent penalty
- Watching the Female Workers (short social guidebook)
- Western dress code
Women's participation in different jobs
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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