typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for writing characters similar to those generated by the type of moving printer. Typically, the typewriter has a key arrangement, and pressing one causes a different single character to be produced on paper, by causing the ribbon with dried ink being struck against paper by similar elements similar to the type used in the letterpress printing type of printing. Generally a separate type element (called a typebar) corresponds to each key, but the mechanism can also use a single type element (like a typewriter) with different sections used for every possible character. At the end of the nineteenth century, the term typewriter was also applied to people using typewriters.
The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874, but did not become common in the office until after the mid-1880s. The typewriter quickly became an indispensable tool for almost any writing other than personal handwriting correspondence. It's widely used by professional writers, in the office, and for business correspondence in private homes.
Leading manufacturers of typewriters include E. Remington and Sons, IBM, Imperial Typewriters, Oliver Type Company, Olivetti, Knicker Machine Company, Smith Corona, Underground Machine Company, Adler Type Company, and Olympia Werke.
Video Typewriter
Histori
Although many modern typewriters have one of several similar designs, their invention is an addition, developed by many inventors who have worked independently or competed with each other for decades. Like cars, telephones and telegraphs, a number of people contribute their views and discoveries that ultimately result in more commercially successful instruments. Historians estimate that some typewriters were created 52 times when thinkers tried to make design workable.
Initial innovation
Some early typing instruments:
- In 1575, an Italian print maker, Francesco Rampazetto, invented scrittura tattile , a machine to impress the letters on paper.
- In 1714, Henry Mill obtained a patent in England for a machine that, of patents, appeared to be similar to a typewriter. The patent shows that this machine is really made: "[he] has gone through great research and pain & expence created and brought to machine perfection or artificial method to impress or transcribe letters, one by one, as in writing, where all any writing that may be preoccupied on paper or parchment so neatly and appropriately so as not to be distinguished from the mold, that the machine or method may be very useful in residential and public records, the impression becomes deeper and more lasting than any other writing, and will not be removed or falsified without any real discovery. "
- In 1802, Italy, Agostino Fantoni developed a special typewriter to allow his sister to write.
- In 1808, Italian Pellegrino Turri invented the typewriter. He also found carbon papers to provide ink for his machine.
- In 1823, Italian Pietro Conti in Cilavegna invented a new modeling machine, tachigrafo , also known as tachitipo .
- In 1829, American William Austin Burt patented a machine called "Typographer" which, together with many other early machines, was listed as the "first typewriter." The Science Museum (London) describes it as just "the first written mechanism of its invention documented," but even that claim may be exaggerated, since the discovery of Turri has perpetuated it. Even in the inventor's hands, this machine is slower than handwriting. Burt and its promoter John D. Sheldon never found a buyer for a patent, so the discovery was never commercially produced. Because typographers use dial instead of keys, to select each character, it is called "typewriter index" rather than "keyboard typewriter." The index typewriter of that era was similar to a squeeze-style embosser from the 1960s over that of a modern keyboard typewriter.
By the mid-19th century, the increased speed of business communication had created a need for the mechanization of the writing process. Stenographers and telegraphs can drop information at rates up to 130 words per minute, while pen writers are limited to a maximum of 30 words per minute (speed record 1853).
From 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America, but none went into commercial production.
- American Charles Thurber developed several patents, the first in 1843 developed as an aid to the blind, such as the 1845 Chirographer.
- In 1855, Italian Giuseppe Ravizza invented a prototype typewriter called Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti ("Scribe harpsichord, or machine to write by key"). It is an advanced machine that lets users view posts as they are typed.
- In 1861, Father Francisco JoÃÆ'Â o de Azevedo, a Brazilian priest, built his own typewriter with basic materials and tools, such as wood and knives. That same year, the Brazilian Emperor D. Pedro II, presented Father Azevedo with a gold medal for this discovery. Many Brazilians and also the Brazilian federal government recognize Fr. Azevedo as the inventor of the typewriter, a claim that has been the subject of some controversy.
- In 1865, John Pratt, of the Center, Alabama (USA), built a machine called Pterotype that appeared in the 1867 Scientific American article. and inspire other inventors.
- Between 1864 and 1867 Peter Mitterhofer, a carpenter from South Tyrol (then part of Austria) developed several fully functioning prototype models and typewriters in 1867.
- 1895 saw a short production of a Ford typewriter, featuring the first typewriter with an aluminum construction and a key forward movement.
Hansen Writing Ball
In 1865, Pdt. Rasmus Malling-Hansen of Denmark invented the Hansen Writing Ball, which went into commercial production in 1870 and was the first commercial typewriter to sell. It was a success in Europe and reportedly used in offices in London until the end of 1909. Malling-Hansen used a solenoid escape to return the train on some of his models which made him a candidate for the title of the inventor of the first "electric" typewriter.
According to the book Hvem er skrivekuglens opfinder? (English: Who Invented the Writing Ball? ), written by Malling-Hansen's daughter, Johanne Agerskov, in 1865, Malling-Hansen modeled the keyboard porcelain from his writing ball and experimented with various letter placements to achieve the fastest writing speed. Malling-Hansen placed the letters on a short piston that went right past the ball and down onto the paper. This, along with the placement of letters so that the fastest writing fingers hit the most commonly used letters, making Hansen Writing Ball the first typewriter to produce text much faster than anyone can write by hand.
The Hansen Writing Ball is produced with only uppercase characters. The Writing Ball is used as a template for the inventor of Frank Haven Hall to create a derivative that will produce cheaper and faster letter prints.
Malling-Hansen developed his typewriter further through the 1870s and 1880s and made many improvements, but the writing head remained the same. In the first model of writing balls from 1870, the paper was attached to a cylinder inside a wooden box. In 1874, the cylinder was replaced by a train, moving under the head of writing. Then, in 1875, the famous "high model" patented, which was the first writing ball to work without electricity. Malling-Hansen attended the world exhibition in Vienna in 1873 and Paris in 1878 and he received the first prize for his invention at both exhibitions.
Sholes and Glidden typewriter
The first typewriter to be commercially successful was discovered in 1878 by Americans Christopher Latham Sholes, Frank Haven Hall, Carlos Glidden and Samuel W. Soule in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, though Sholes soon disowned the machine and refused to use, or even to recommend it. It looked "like something like a cross between a piano and a kitchen table." The working prototype was made by Matthias Schwalbach's engineer. The patent (US 79,265) sold for $ 12,000 to Densmore and Yost, who made a deal with E. Remington and Sons (then famous as a sewing machine manufacturer) to commercialize the machine as Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer
This is the origin of the term typewriter . Remington began production of his first typewriter on March 1, 1873, in Ilion, New York. It has a QWERTY keyboard layout, which due to the success of the engine, is slowly adopted by other typewriter manufacturers. Like most other early typewriters, because typebars strike upwards, the typist can not see the characters as they are typed. Index typing machine
Coming to the market in the early 1880s, index machines use a pointer or stylus to select letters from the index. The pointer is mechanically connected so that the selected letter can then be printed, most often by the activation of the lever.
The index typewriter is briefly popular in the niche market. Although they are slower than their keyboard type machines are mechanically simpler and lighter, they are marketed because they are suitable for travelers, and because they can be manufactured cheaper than a keyboard machine, as a budget machine for users that is required to produce small quantities of typed correspondence. Typical typewriter appeal of the index but soon disappears, as on one side the new keyboard typewriter becomes lighter and more portable and on the other the old used refurbished machines are becoming available. The most popular western processing machine available is the Mignon typewriter manufactured by AEG produced until 1934. Considered one of the best index typewriters, part of Mignon's popularity is that it displays indexes and exchangeable types, enables the use of fonts and sets of different characters, something very few keyboard machines are allowed and only at a hefty additional cost.
Although driven out of the market in most parts of the world by a successful keyboard, Japanese typewriter and Chinese typewriter is an index type though with a much larger index and number of element types.
Standardization
Around 1910, "manual" or "mechanical" typewriters had achieved a rather standard design. There are small variations from one manufacturer to another, but most typewriters follow the concept that each key is embedded in a typebar that has the corresponding letter printed, in reverse, to its flashy head. When the key is hit quickly and firmly, the typebar strikes the ribbon (usually made of ink), making the mark printed on the paper wrapped around the cylindrical plate.
Plates mounted on left or right moving trains automatically forward typing positions horizontally after each character is typed. Paper, rolling on the typewriter plate, then moving vertically by a lever-back lever (on the left-hand edge, or on the far right for the left-handed typewriter) in its position for each line of new text. A small bell struck several characters before the right margin was reached to alert the operator to finish the word and then use the lever-back lever to slide the paper back to the beginning of the next line.
Frontstriking
In most early typewriters, typebars hit onto the paper, pressing the bottom of the plate, so the typist can not see the text as it is typed. What is typed is not visible until the carriage return causes it to scroll to the view. The difficulty with other settings is to make sure that the typebars fall back into place reliably when the key is released. This is ultimately accomplished by a variety of ingenious mechanical designs and commonly called "visible typewriters" that use frontstriking, where typebars strike forward to the side of the plate, becoming standard.
One of the first is Daugherty Visible, introduced in 1893, which also introduces a standard four-bank keyboard, although the Underwood that came out two years later was the first major typewriter with these features. However, the older "invisible" models continued to produce until the end of 1915.
Shift key
Significant innovations are key shifts, introduced with Remington No. 2 in 1878. These keys physically "shifted" either the typebars basket, in which case the typewriter was described as a "shifting basket", or paper cart, in which case the typewriter was described as a "shift hopper". One mechanism causes different parts of the typebar to come in contact with the tape/plate. The result is that each typebar can type two different characters, cutting the number of keys and typebars into two (and simplifying the internal mechanism significantly). The obvious use for this is to allow letter keys to type in uppercase and lowercase letters, but typically digitally duplexed number keys, allowing access to special symbols like percent (%) and ampersand (& amp;).
Before the shift key, the typewriter should have separate keys and typebar for uppercase; in essence, the typewriter has two keyboards, one on top of the other. With shift locks, production costs (and therefore purchase prices) are greatly reduced, and typewriter operations are simplified; both factors contribute greatly to the mass adoption of technology. Certain models, such as the Barlet, have a double shift so each button performs three functions. These three small row machines are portable and can be used by journalists.
However, since the shift button requires more force to push (its mechanism moves mass much larger than other keys), and operated by the little finger (usually the weakest finger in the hand), it is difficult to resist the downward shift. for more than two or three times in a row. The "key shift" key (modern key close lug) allows shift operation to be kept indefinitely.
Tab key
To facilitate the use of typewriters in business settings, a tab (tabulator) key was added in the late nineteenth century. Before using the key, the operator must set the mechanical "stop tab", the predetermined location to which the train will advance when the tab key is pressed. This makes it easy to type in numeric columns, freeing the operator from the need to manually place the carriage. The first model has one stop tab and one tab button; then allowed as many stops as desired, and sometimes have multiple key tabs, each of which moves the train of different spaces in front of the decimal point, to facilitate typing columns of different lengths ($ 1, 00, $ 10.00, $ 100.00, etc.)
Character size
In English-speaking countries, typewriters typically print characters with standardized fixed widths to print six horizontal lines per vertical inch, and have one of the two wide character variants, called "pica" for ten characters per inch horizontal and "elite" for twelve. This differs from the use of these terms in printing, where "pica" is a linear unit (about 1/6 inch) used for any measurement, the most common being the height of a face type.
Some typewriters are designed to print extra large types (typically double height, double width) for labeling purposes. The classification of numbers in books in libraries can be done in this way.
Color
Some ribbons are inscribed with black and red stripes, each half-width and running the entire length of the ribbon. A lever on most machines allows for switching between colors, which is useful for bookkeeping entries where the negative amount is highlighted in red. Red color is also used on some selected characters in running text, for emphasis. When the typewriter has this facility, it can still be fitted with a solid black tape; The lever is then used to switch to fresh ribbon when the first line runs out of ink. Some typewriters also have a third position that stops the ribbons being hit altogether. This allows the keys to hit the paper unhindered, and is used to cut stencils for the stencil machine (aka stencil machine).
Design "Noiseless"
At the beginning of the 20th century, the typewriter was marketed under the name "Voice" and advertised as "silent". It was developed by Wellington Parker Kidder and the first model was marketed by Noiseless Typewriter Company in 1917. The deal with Remington in 1924 saw the production transferred to Remington, and a further agreement in 1929 enabled Underwood to produce it as well. The portable sounding booth was sold well in the 1930s and 1940s, and the sound standard continued to be produced until the 1960s.
In a conventional typewriter, the typebar reaches the end of the journey simply by hitting the ribbon and paper. A "noiseless" typewriter has an intricate lever mechanism that slows the mechanical typing speed before pressing it against the tape and paper in an attempt to muffle the noise. This of course reduces the high-frequency content of the sound, making it more of a "clunk" than "clack" and arguably less disturbing, but such ads claim to be "A machine that can be operated a few feet from your desk - - and unheard" not true.
Electrical design
Although the electric typewriter would not reach widespread popularity until almost a century later, the basic foundation for an electric typewriter was laid by Universal Stock Ticker, invented by Thomas Edison in 1870. This device remotely printed letters and numbers on the stream of paper ribbon from the resulting input by a specially designed typewriter at the other end of the telegraph line.
Initial power model
Some electric typewriters were patented in the 19th century, but the first machine known to be produced in the series was Cahill in 1900.
Other electric typewriters were manufactured by Blickensderfer Manufacturing Company, Stamford, Connecticut, in 1902. Like the manual Blickensderfer typewriter, the machine used cylindrical typewriter instead of individual typebars. This machine is produced in several variants but it seems it is not a commercial success, for reasons that are not clear.
The next step in the development of electric typewriters came in 1910, when Charles and Howard Krum filed a patent for the first practical teletypewriter. The Krums machine, named Morkrum Printing Telegraph, uses typewheel instead of individual typebars. This machine was used for the first commercial teletypewriter system on the Telegraph Company line between Boston and New York City in 1910.
James Fields Smathers of Kansas City discovered what was considered the first electric-operated typewriter in 1914. In 1920, after returning from the Army service, he produced a successful model and in 1923 handed it over to the Northeast Electric Company of Rochester for development. Northeast is interested in finding new markets for their electric motors and developing Smathers designs so they can be marketed to typewriter manufacturers, and starting in 1925 Remington Electric typewriters are manufactured powered by Northeast motors.
After about 2,500 electric typewriters have been manufactured, Northeast asks Remington for a strong contract for the next batch. However, Remington was involved in merger talks that would ultimately result in the creation of Remington Rand and no executives were willing to commit to firm orders. Northeast instead decided to enter the typewriter business itself, and in 1929 produced the first Electromatic Type Machine.
In 1928, Delco, a division of General Motors, bought Northeast Electric, and the typewriter business was separated as Electromatic Typewriters, Inc. In 1933, Electromatic was acquired by IBM, which subsequently spent $ 1 million on the redesign of the Electromatic Type Machine, launched the Type 01 Electric Machine Model of IBM 01 in 1935. In 1958, IBM acquired 8% of its revenues from sales of electric typewriters.
In 1931, an electric typewriter was introduced by Varityper Corporation. It's called Varityper , because a narrow cylinder-like wheel can be changed to change the font.
The electric typewriter design removes a direct mechanical connection between the button and the element that overwrites the paper. Not to be confused with an electronic typewriter later, the electric typewriter contains only one electrical component: the motor. Where the previous keystroke has moved a typebar directly, it now involves a mechanical connection that directs the mechanical strength of the motor into the typebar.
In 1941, IBM announced an electric typewriter of the Electromatic Model 04, which presented a revolutionary concept of proportional distance. By assigning variations rather than uniform distances to different character sizes, Type 4 recreates the appearance of printed pages, a more enhanced effect by incorporating the innovation of the 1937 carbon-film ribbon that produces clearer and sharper words on the page. The proportional spacing feature is a staple of the IBM Executive series engine.
IBM Selectric
IBM's electric typewriter and Remington Rand were the leading models until IBM introduced the Selectric Selectric engine in 1961, replacing typebars with a ball element (or a banner marked) slightly smaller than a golf ball, with inverted letters printed on the surface. Selectric uses a locking system, a metal band, and a pulley powered by an electric motor to rotate the ball to the correct position and then hit it with ribbons and plates. Typeball moves laterally in front of the paper, instead of the previous design using a carrier carriage that moves the paper across a stationary stationary position.
Due to physical similarity, the tipball is sometimes referred to as a "golf ball". The typeball design has many advantages, especially the removal of "congestion" (when more than one button is hit at once and the typebars become entangled) and in the ability to change typeball, allows multiple fonts to be used in a single document.
IBM Selectric became a commercial success, dominating the office typewriter market for at least two decades. IBM also benefited by marketing more to schools than Remington, with the idea that students who learned to type on Selectric would choose an IBM typewriter over the competition at work when the business replaced their old manual model. In the 1970s, IBM had succeeded in establishing Selectric as the default de facto typewriter in mid-to-high office environments, replacing the "crust" of the rougher typebar engines with a quieter sound from the rotating keyboard.
Then the IBM Executives and Selectrics model replaces the inking band with "carbon film" ribbon that has a black or dry colored powder on a clear plastic tape. It can only be used once, but the next models use an easily replaceable cartridge. The side effect of this technology is that typed text on the machine can be easily read from the tape used, raising the issue where the machines are used to prepare confidential documents (ribbons must be taken into account to ensure that the typists do not carry them from the facility).
A variation known as "Selectrics Correction" introduces a correction feature, where an adhesive tape in front of a carbon film tape can erase a black powder image of a typed character, eliminating the need for a small bottle of white dust correction fluid and for a hard eraser that can tear the paper. The machine also introduces a "pitch" that can be selected so that the typewriter can be diverted between the pica type (10 characters per inch) and the elite type (12 per inch), even in one document. Even so, all Selectrics are monospace - each character and letter are given the same width on the page, from the capital letter "W" to a period. Although IBM has produced a successful shortcut engine with five levels of proportional distance, called the IBM Executive, the proportional distance is not provided with Selectric typewriter or its successor Selectric II and Selectric III.
The only fully Automatic Electromechanical Type Machine with a full proportional distance and which uses the Selectric type element is an expensive Selectric Composer, capable of justifying the right margin and is considered a letter-making machine rather than a typewriter.
In addition to its electronic successors, Compos Magnetic Selectric Composer (MT/SC), Magical Selectic Card Composer, and Electronic Select Composer, IBM also makes electronic typewriters with proportional distances using Selectric elements that are considered typewriters or word processors instead. layout machine.
The first is a relatively obscure Mag Card Executive, which uses 88 character elements. Later, several types of deceptions used for it were used in the 96-character element used in the IBM 50 Electronic Type Machine and the subsequent models 65 and 85.
In 1970, when offset printing began to replace letterpress printing, Composer would be adapted as an output unit for typesetting systems. The system includes computer-based input stations for capturing scratches on magnetic tape and entering operator format commands, and Composer units for reading recordings and producing text formatted for photo reproduction.
Advantages:
- is fast enough, free to jam, and reliable
- is relatively quiet, and more importantly, free of large vibrations
- can produce higher and lower quality outputs, compared to competitors like the Teletype engine
- can be activated by short, low-force mechanical action, allowing easier interfacing to electronic controls
- does not require heavy "cart type" movements to move between lowercase and upper, allowing higher speeds without major effect
- does not require platen roll assembly to move from side to side (problem with continuous feed paper used for automatic printing)
The IBM 2741 terminal is a popular example of Selectric-based computer terminals, and a similar mechanism is used as a console device for many IBM System/360 computers. This mechanism uses a "ruggedized" design compared to that of standard office machines.
Electrical model later
Some of IBM's advances were then adopted in machines that were cheaper than competitors. For example, the Smith-Corona electric typewriter introduced in 1973 switched to replaceable Coronamatic ribbon (SCM-patent) cartridges, including cloth, film, eraser, and two-color versions. At almost the same time, the emergence of photocopies meant that carbon copies and erasers were increasingly unnecessary; only the original needs are typed, and the copies made from it.
Machine type/hybrid printer
Towards the end of the commercial popularity of typewriters in the 1970s, a number of hybrid designs that incorporated the printer features were introduced. It often incorporates a keyboard from an existing typewriter model and a dot-matrix printer printing mechanism. Generations of teleprinters with imprint-based imprinting machines are inadequate for the demanding quality required for typed output, and alternative heat transfer technologies used in thermal label printers are technically feasible for typewriters.
IBM produced a series of typewriters called Thermotronic with letter quality output and corrected tape along with a printer inscribed Quietwriter. Brother extend the life of their typewriter product line with similar products. The development of this exclusive printing machine provides vendors with an exclusive market in consumable ribbons and the ability to use standard printing machines with varying degrees of electronic sophistication and software to develop product lines. Although these changes reduce prices - and greatly improve the convenience - of typewriters, technological interruptions caused by word processors leave these improvements only with a low short-run market. To extend the life of this product, many examples are provided with a communications port to connect to the computer as a printer.
Electronic typewriters
The main development of typewriter is electronic typewriter. Most of them replace typeballs with plastic or metal daisy wheel mechanisms (disks with letters printed on the outer edge of "petals"). The concept of a daisy wheel first appeared in printers developed by Diablo Systems in the 1970s. In 1981, Xerox Corporation, which at the time had purchased Diablo Systems, introduced a series of electronic typewriters that incorporated this technology (Memorywriter product line). In the meantime, these products are quite successful because their daisy-wheel mechanism is much simpler and cheaper than a typo or Selectric mechanism, and their electronic memory and display allows users to easily see errors and fix them before they actually print. One problem with plastic daisy wheels is that they are not always durable. To overcome this problem, a more durable metal daisy wheel is made available (but at a slightly higher price).
These electronic typewriters and the like are essentially dedicated word processors with single-line LCD screens or multi-line CRT displays, built-in row editor, spellcheck and grammar checkers, several kilobytes of internal RAM and optional cartridges, card magnets or floppy disks an external memory storage device for storing text and even document formats. Text can be inserted one line or paragraph at a time and edited using the default software view and tool before committing to paper.
Unlike the Selectrics and previous models, these are completely "electronic" and depend on integrated circuits and some electromechanical components. This typewriter is sometimes called typewriter display , a special word processor or a word processing machine , although the last term also often applied to less sophisticated machines that only feature a small screen, sometimes only one line. The advanced model is also called word processor , although currently the term almost always indicates the type of software program. Manufacturers of these machines include Brother (Brother WP1 and WP500 etc., where WP stands for word processing), Canon (Canon Cat), Smith-Corona (PWP, ie Personal Word Path) and Philips/Magnavox (VideoWriter).
End of era
The 1970s and early 1980s were a time of transition for typewriters and word processors. At one point in time, most small business offices will be truly 'old-fashioned', while large corporations and government departments have become 'new styles'; Other offices will have a mix. The pace of change is so fast that it is common for administrative staff to learn new systems, one by one, in just a few years. Although such rapid changes are common today, and taken for granted, this is not always the case; in fact, the technology of typewriters changed very little in the first 80 or 90 years.
Due to the fall of sales, IBM sold its typewriter division in 1991 to Lexmark, completely out of the market it once ruled.
The increasing dominance of personal computers, desktop publishing, the introduction of low-quality laser and inkjet printer technology, is truly high-quality, and the widespread use of web publishing, email and other electronic communication techniques has replaced typewriters in the United States. Union. However, in 2009, typewriters continued to be used by a number of government agencies and other institutions in the US, where they were primarily used to fill out preprinted forms. According to a Boston typewriter technician quoted by The Boston Globe, "Every maternity ward has a typewriter, as well as a funeral home". A sizable typewriter was New York City, which in 2008 bought several thousand typewriters, mostly for use by the New York Police Department, for a total cost of $ 982,269. Another $ 99,570 was spent in 2009 for the maintenance of an existing typewriter. New York police officers will use the machines to type in proof of property and evidence on carbon paper forms.
Specific markets for typewriters exist because of the regulation of many correctional systems in the US, where detainees are prohibited from owning computers or telecommunications equipment, but are allowed to own typewriters. The Swintec company (based in Moonachie, New Jersey), which in 2011 still produces typewriters at its overseas plants (in Japan, Indonesia and/or Malaysia), produces various types of typewriters for use in prisons, made of plastic ( to make it harder for prisoners to hide the forbidden items inside). In 2011, the company has contracted with prisons in 43 US states.
In April 2011, Godrej and Boyce, a Mumbai-based mechanical typewriter, closed the door, leading to a flurry of false news that the "world's last typewriter" had been shut down. The report was quickly disputed.
In November 2012, the British Brother factory produced what was claimed to be the last typewriter ever made in the UK; the typewriter was donated to the London Science Museum.
The Russian typewriter uses Cyrillic, which has made the ongoing Azerbaijani re-alteration of the Cyrillic alphabet to Latin more difficult. In 1997, the Turkish government offered to donate a western typewriter to the Republic of Azerbaijan in exchange for a more passionate and exclusive promotion of the Latin alphabet for the Azerbaijani language; This offer, however, was rejected.
In Latin America and Africa, mechanical typewriters are still common because they can be used without power. In Latin America, typewriters use the most common Brazilian model - Brazil continues to produce mechanical typewriters (Facit) and electronics (Olivetti) to this day.
The 21st century has seen a resurgence of interest in typewriters among certain subcultures, including makers, steampunks, hipsters, and street poets.
Maps Typewriter
Correction technology
According to the standards taught at secretariat schools in the mid-20th century, business letters should have no faults and no visible correction. Accuracy is as valuable as speed. Indeed, typing speed, which is assessed in skills tests and writing speed competitions, includes a ten-word reduction for each error. Corrections, of course, are necessary, and many methods are developed.
In practice, several methods are often combined. For example, if six additional copies of the letter are required, the original document corrected with the liquid will be photocopied, but only for two receivers getting "c.c."; four other copies, a copy of less important files that persist in various departments at the office, will be cheaper, smaller paper copy, or more easily removed, or even "flimsi" with different colors (tissue paper inserted with carbon black paper ) which are all typed as "carbon packs" at the same time as the original.
In informal applications such as private letters where low priority is placed on the document display, or vice versa in very formal applications where it is important that any corrections become clear, backspace keys can be used to back up errors and then overload them with hyphens, slashes, X, or the like.
Machine type eraser
The traditional removal method involves the use of a special typewriter eraser made of hard rubber containing abrasive material. There are thin, flat, pink or gray discs, about 2 inches (51 mm) thick with 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) thick, with a brush attached to the center, while others look like a red pencil young, with which can be sharpened. an eraser at the end of the "tip" and a rigid nylon brush on the other end. Either way, these tools allow the removal of typed letters individually. Business letters are typed on heavy heavyweight bond paper, not only to give a luxurious appearance, but also to remove them.
Machine type eraser brushes are required to clear paper eraser and dust crumbs, and using the brush properly is an essential element of typing skills; if the eraser detritus falls into the typewriter, a small buildup can cause typebars to jam in their narrow support plot.
Wiper protector
Removing a set of carbon copies is very difficult, and calls for the use of a device called an eraser shield (a thin, stainless steel rectangle about 2 by 3 inches (51 x 76 mm) with multiple holes in it) to prevent pressure remove on the upper copy of producing carbon stains on the lower copy. To correct the copy, the typist must go from carbon copy to carbon copy, trying not to make their fingers dirty as they leaf through carbon paper, and move and reposition eraser and eraser eraser for each copy.
Deleted bundle
Paper companies produce a special form of typewriter paper called removable bonds (for example, Eaton's Eaton Bonds). This includes a thin layer of material that prevents ink penetrating and is relatively soft and easy to remove from the page. The usual soft pencil eraser can quickly result in a complete removal of this type of paper. However, the same characteristics that make paper erasable make the character becomes blurred due to the usual friction and deliberate changes after the fact, making it unacceptable for business correspondence, contracts, or the use of any archive.
Correction fluid
In the 1950s and 1960s, correction fluids appeared, under brand names like Liquid Paper, Wite-Out, and Tipp-Ex; it was discovered by Bette Nesmith Graham. The correction fluid is a kind of opaque, white, fast dry paint that produces a fresh white surface where, when dried, the correction may be retyped. However, when held with light, closed characters look, like patches of dry correction fluid (which is never completely flat, and often unsuitable for the color, texture, and sheen of the surrounding paper). The standard trick to solve this problem is to photocopy the corrected page, but this is only possible with high-quality copier.
Different fluids are available for correcting stencils. It seals the stencil ready for retyping but does not try to match the colors.
Dry correction
Dry correction products (such as correction paper) with brand names such as "Ko-Rec-Type" were introduced in 1970 and functioned like white carbon paper. A product strip is placed on top of the letters that need to be fixed, and the wrong letter is retyped, causing the black character to be overtrak with a white coat. A similar material is immediately inserted in a carbon film-carbon film tape; such as the traditional black and red two-color ribbon on a manual typewriter, black and white correction bands became commonplace in electric typewriters. But black or white layers can be partially rubbed by handling, so such correction is generally unacceptable in legal documents.
The peak of this kind of technology is the IBM Electronic Keyboard series. This machine, and similar products from other manufacturers, uses separate correction bands and character memory. By pressing a single button, the typewriter is able to automatically rewind and then exaggerate the previous character by slightly damaging the paper. White cover tape is used with cloth ink ribbons, or alternate premium designs featuring plastic pickup correction bands used with carbon film fastening tape. This latter technology actually lifts the carbon film that forms typed letters, leaving nothing but a depression flattened on the surface of the paper, with the advantage that no paper color matching is required.
Legacy
Keyboard layout
QWERTY
The 1874 Sholes & amp; Glidden typewriter sets the "QWERTY" layout for letter keys. During the period in which Sholes and his colleagues experimented with this discovery, other keyboard arrangements seem to be attempted, but these are not well documented. The QWERTY keypad layout has become the de facto standard for typewriters and English-language computer keyboards. Other languages ​​written in the Latin alphabet sometimes use QWERTY layout variants, such as French AZERTY, Italian QZERTY, and German QWERTZ layouts.
The QWERTY layout is not the most efficient layout for English, as it requires touch-typing to move its fingers between rows to type the most common letters. Although the QWERTY keyboard is the most commonly used layout on typewriters, better and less heavy keyboards are being sought throughout the late 1900s.
One popular but unverified explanation for QWERTY settings is that it is designed to reduce the possibility of internal clashes of typebars by placing commonly used font combinations farther from each other inside the machine.
Another story is that the QWERTY layout allows early typewriter salesmen to impress their customers by being able to easily type in the word "typewriter" without learning the full keyboard layout, since the "typewriter" can be spelled purely on the top row of the keyboard. However, there is no evidence to support this claim.
More layouts
A number of very different layouts such as Dvorak have been proposed to reduce QWERTY inefficiency, but no one can replace the QWERTY layout; Their supporters claimed many advantages, but so far nothing is widely used. The Blickensderfer typewriter with its DHIATENSOR layout is probably the first attempt to optimize the keyboard layout for efficiency gains.
Many non-Latin alphabets have a keyboard layout that has nothing to do with QWERTY. Russian layout, for example, puts a common trigram ???, ???, and ??? on adjacent buttons so they can be typed by rotating the fingers. The Greek layout, on the other hand, is a QWERTY variant.
Typewriters are also made for East Asian languages ​​with thousands of characters, such as Chinese or Japanese. They were not easy to operate, but professional typists used it for a long time until the development of electronic word processors and laser printers in the 1980s.
On modern keyboards, an exclamation point is a character shifted on key 1, a direct result of historical fact that this is the last character to be "standard" on the keyboard. Holding a suppressed spacebar usually holds the forward mechanism (a feature called "dead lock"), allowing someone to place in multiple buttons at a single location. The symbol Ã, Â ¢ (means penny) is located above the number 6 on the electric typewriter, while the ASCII computer keyboard has a ^ instead.
Rule of typewriter
A number of typographic conventions stem from the widespread use of typewriters, based on the characteristics and limitations of the typewriter itself. For example, a QWERTY keyboard typewriter does not include keys for the dash and en dash dashes. To overcome this limitation, users typically type more than one adjacent hyphen to approach these symbols. The typewriter convention is still sometimes used today, although modern computer word processing applications can include the correct en and em for each typeface.
Other examples of typewriter practices that are sometimes still used in desktop publishing systems include entering double spaces at the end of a sentence, and using straight quotes (or "stupid quotes") as quotation marks and main marks. The practice of underlining the text on the slopes and the use of all capitals to emphasize are additional examples of typographic conventions stemming from the limitations of keyboard typewriters still carrying today.
Many older typewriters do not include separate keys for number 1 or exclamation marks, and some even older do not have zeros either. Typists trained on this machine learn the habit of using lowercase l ("ell") for digit 1, and the letter O for zero. The sen symbol (Ã, Â ¢) is made by combining (too flashy) the lower case 'c' with a slash character (typing 'c', then backspace, then '/').
Similarly, exclamation points are created by combining quotes and periods. These characters are eliminated to simplify the design and reduce manufacturing and maintenance costs; they are specifically chosen because they are "redundant" and can be recreated using other keys.
Terminology
Some of the terminology of the age of the typewriter has persisted into the era of personal computers. Examples include:
- backspace (BS) - a keystroke that moves the cursor backward one position (on the physical plate, this is the opposite of the space key), for the purpose of overtyping characters. It can be to combine characters (eg Apostrophe, backspace, and period create exclamation marks - characters lost on some early typewriters), or for such correction by correcting the developed ribbon later.
- carriage return (CR) - returns to the first text field and, in some systems, switches to the next line.
- cursor - the marker used to indicate where the next character will be printed. The cursor, however, was originally a term to describe a clear slider on the slide rule.
- cut and paste - grab text, number tables, or images and paste them into the document. This term originates when the compound documents are created using manual sticky techniques for typography page layout. Real brushes and pastes are then replaced by hot-waxed machines fitted with cylinders that apply melted adhesive candles to develop "set" copy prints. This copy is then cut with a knife and ruler, and slid into position on the layout sheet on the tilted layout table. Once the "copy" is positioned correctly and squared using T-square and square sets, it is pressed with a brayer, or roller. The essence of this exercise is to create so-called "ready-to-copy copies" that are only there to be photographed and then printed, usually with offset lithography. Lock off
- - describes keys that are currently typed, does not advance typing positions, allowing other characters to be overwhelmed over the original characters. This is usually used to combine diacritical marks with the letters they modify (eg ÃÆ'¨ can be generated by pressing
`and thene). The die lock feature is often mechanically implemented by pressing the typist and holding the space bar while typing characters to be superimposed. - line feed (LF), also called "newline" - moves the cursor to the next line on the text screen in the word processing document.
- shift - modifier key used to type uppercase and other "capital letters" substitutes; when pressed and pressed, will shift the typewriter mechanism to allow different typebar impressions (such as 'D' instead of 'd') to press into the ribbon and print on the page. The concept of a shift key or modifier key is then extended to Ctrl, Alt, and Super ("Windows" or "Apple") keys on modern computer keyboards. The general concept of the shift key reaches its apotheosis in the MIT space-cadet keyboard. The
- (HT) tab, shortened from "horizontal tab" or "stop tabulator" - causes the print position to advance horizontally to the predefined "stop tab". This is used to type lists and tables with vertical columns of numbers or words. The corresponding term "vertical tab" (VT) has never been used widely.
- tty, short for teletypewriter - is used in Unix-like operating systems to designate "terminals".
In the above list, the two-letter code in parentheses is an acronym for ASCII characters derived from the use of typewriters.
When Remington started a marketing typewriter, the company thought the machine would not be used for writing but to dictate dictation, and that the person who typed was a woman. Shots 1800 and Glidden typewriters have floral ornaments on the casing.
During World War I and II, more women entered the workforce. In the United States, women often start in the professional workplace as typists. The question of morality makes a passionate entrepreneur making sexual advances with a female typist into a cliche of office life, appearing in vaudeville and movies. Being a typist is considered the right choice for a "good girl" which means women who present themselves as sacred and have good behavior. According to the 1900 census, 94.9 percent of stenographers and typists are unmarried women.
Documents typed can be checked by forensic document examiners. This is done primarily to determine 1) the manufacture and/or typewriter model used to produce the document, or 2) whether a particular typing machine may have been used to produce the document. In some situations, ink or tape correction may also be checked.
The determination of brand and/or typewriter model is a matter of 'classification' and some systems have been developed for this purpose. These include Haas Typewriter Atlases (Pica version) and (Non-Pica version) and TYPE system developed by Dr. Philip Bouffard, classification system of General Templatx Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and Interpol Machine classification system, among others.
Due to the tolerance of mechanical parts, slight variations in alignment of letters and uneven wear, each typewriter has individual "signatures" or "fingerprints", allowing typed documents to be traced back to the typewriter they produce. For devices that use replaceable components, such as typeball elements, any association can be restricted to certain elements, rather than to an overall typewriter.
The earliest reference in the fiction literature for the identification of potentials of typewriters as having produced the document was by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle who wrote "The Case of Identity" in 1891. In non-fiction, the first document examiner to describe how typewriters might be Identified is William E Hagan wrote, in 1894, "All typewriters, even when using the same type, become more or less weird by using for the work done by them." Another early discussion on this topic was given by A. S. Osborn in his 1908 treatise, Typewriting as Evidence, and again in his 1929 book Questioned Documents. Modern descriptions of the inspection procedures are laid out in ASTM Standard E2494-08 (Standard Guide for Inspection of Written Goods).
A typewriter check is used in the case of Leopold and Loeb and Alger Hiss. In the Eastern Block, typewriters (along with newer printing machines, copiers, and computer printers) are controlled technology, with a secret police tasked with maintaining typewriter files and their owners. In the Soviet Union, the First Department of each organization sent data on an organization's typewriter to the KGB. This poses a significant risk to dissidents and writers samizdat. In Romania, according to the Decree of the State Council. 98 dated March 28, 1983, owns typewriters, whether by business or by private persons, subject to the approval granted by the local police. Persons who were previously convicted of any offense or those whose behavior is perceived as "a danger to the public
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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