Eugenics ( ; from the Greek ?????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????, 'good, good' and 'genocide', 'race, stock, relatives') are a set of beliefs and practices aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population. The exact definition of eugenics has been the subject of much debate since the term was coined by Francis Galton in 1883. This concept precedes this currency, with Plato suggesting applying the principles of selective breeding to humans around 400 BC.
The journal article Frederick Osborn in 1937 "Development of the Eugenian Philosophy" framed it as a social philosophy - that is, philosophy with implications for the social order. The definition is not universally accepted. Osborn suggests to a higher level of sexual reproduction among people with desirable traits (positive eugenics), or reduced levels of sexual reproduction and sterilization of people with undesirable or undesirable traits (negative eugenics).
Alternatively, gene selection rather than "person selection" has recently been made possible through advances in editing the genome, leading to what is sometimes called new eugenics, also known as neo-eugenics, consumer eugenics, or liberal eugenics.
While eugenic principles have been practiced as far back as world history such as ancient Greece, the history of modern eugenics began in the early 20th century when the popular eugenic movement emerged in Britain and spread to many countries including the United States, Canada and most European countries. In this period, eugenic ideas were embraced throughout the political spectrum. As a result, many countries adopt eugenic policies with a view to improving the genetic stock of their populations. Such programs include "positive" measures, such as encouraging people who are considered "fit" to reproduce, and "negative" actions such as prohibition of marriage and forced sterilization against persons deemed unfit for reproduction. Persons who are deemed unfit to reproduce often include persons with mental or physical disabilities, people who score lowly in different ranges of IQ tests, criminals and irregularities, and members of an unpopular minority. The eugenics movement became negatively associated with Nazi Germany and the Holocaust when many defendants in Nuremberg courts attempted to justify their human rights abuses by claiming there was little difference between the Nazi eugenics program and the US eugenics program. In the decades after World War II, with human rights institutions, many countries gradually began to abandon eugenic policies, although some Western countries, among them the United States and Sweden, continued to do forced sterilization.
Since the 1980s and 1990s, when new aid reproductive technology procedures have been available such as gestacy surrogacy (available since 1985), preimplantation genetic diagnosis (available since 1989), and cytoplasmic transfer (first performed in 1996), fears about the possibility the rise of eugenics and the widening of the gap between the rich and the poor have arisen.
The main criticism of eugenic policy is that, regardless of whether "negative" or "positive" policies are used, they are vulnerable to harassment because selection criteria are determined by any political group at that time. Furthermore, negative eugenics are particularly regarded by many as basic human rights violations, which include the right to reproduction. Another criticism is that eugenic policies ultimately lead to the loss of genetic diversity, resulting in inbreeding depression due to lower genetic variations.
Video Eugenics
History
Origin and development
The positive eugenics concept for producing a better man has existed since at least since Plato suggested a selective marriage to produce a guardian class.
The first formal negative eugenics, which is the legal provision of inferior human birth, was enacted in Western European culture by Christian Council of Agde in 506, which prohibited the marriage of cousins.
This idea was also promoted by William Goodell (1829-1894) who advocated castration and crazy dismissal.
The idea of ​​a modern project to increase human populations through a statistical understanding of heredity used to encourage good breeding was originally developed by Francis Galton and, at first, closely related to Darwinism and his theory of natural selection. Galton had read the theory of Darwin Darwin's half-step evolution, which sought to explain the development of plant and animal species, and wanted to apply it to humans. Based on his biographical studies, Galton believed that the desired human qualities were hereditary, although Darwin strongly disagreed with the elaboration of this theory. In 1883, one year after Darwin's death, Galton gave his research a name: eugenica . With the introduction of genetics, eugenics becomes associated with genetic determinism, the belief that a fully human character or a majority caused by a gene, is unaffected by education or living conditions. Many early geneticists were not Darwin, and the theory of evolution was not required for eugenic policies based on genetic determinism. Throughout its history, eugenics remains controversial.
Eugenics became an academic discipline in many colleges and universities and received funding from many sources. Organizations are formed to win public support and influence opinions on responsible eugenic values ​​in parent roles, including the British Eugenics Education Society of 1907 and the American Eugenics Society of 1921. Both seek support from religious leaders and modify their message to fulfill their ideals. religious ideals. In 1909, Anglican priests William Inge and James Peile wrote for the British Eugenics Education Society. Inge was a speaker invited to the 1921 International Eugenics Conference, also supported by New York Catholic Archbishop Patrick Joseph Hayes of Rome.
The three International Eugenics Conferences present a global place for eugenians with meetings in 1912 in London, and in 1921 and 1932 in New York City. The Eugenic policy was first applied in the early 1900s in the United States. It is also rooted in France, Germany and the United Kingdom. Then, in the 1920s and 1930s, eugenic policies to sterilize certain mental patients were carried out in other countries including Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Japan and Sweden.
In addition to being practiced in a number of countries, eugenics is managed internationally through the Federation of International Eugenics Organizations. The scientific aspect is brought through research bodies such as the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics, Cold Spring Harbor Carnegie Institution for Experimental Evolution, and Eugenics Record Office. Politically, the movement advocated such measures as sterilization laws. In its moral dimension, eugenics rejects the doctrine that all human beings are born equal and redefine pure moral values ​​in terms of genetic fitness. Its racial elements include the pursuit of genetic "genetics" or "Aryan" genetic pools and the final elimination of "unworthy" races.
Early critics of eugenics philosophy include American sociologist Lester Frank Ward, British author GK Chesterton, German-American anthropologist Franz Boas, who argues that supporters of eugenics strongly over-estimate the influence of biology, and the pioneer and author of the TB TB Scotland Halliday Sutherland. Ward's 1913 article "Eugenics, Euthenics, and Eudemics", Chesterton's 1917 book Eugenics and Other Evils, and Boas 1916's "Eugenics" (published in The Scientific Monthly) are all very critical of the rapidly growing movement. Sutherland identifies eugenists as a major obstacle to the eradication and cure of tuberculosis in 1917 addressing "Consumption: Cause and Cure", and criticism of eugenists and Neo-Malthusians in his 1921 Birth Control led to a warrant for defamation from eugenist Marie Stopes. Some biologists are also antagonistic to the eugenics movement, including Lancelot Hogben. Other biologists such as J. B. S. Haldane and R. A. Fisher expressed skepticism in the belief that sterilization of "defectives" would lead to the loss of undesirable genetic traits.
Among the institutions, the Catholic Church is the opponent of sterilization imposed by the state. Efforts by the Eugenics Education Institute to persuade the British government to legalize voluntary sterilization are opposed by Catholics and by the Labor Party. The American Eugenics Society initially gained some Catholic supporters, but Catholic support declined after the 1930s papal encyclical of Casti connubii . In this case, Pope Pius XI explicitly condemns the law of sterilization: "The general judge has no direct authority over the body of their subject, therefore, where no crime has occurred and no cause is present for the death penalty, they can not directly harm, or tinker with the integrity of the body, whether for reasons of eugenics or for other reasons. "
As a social movement, eugenics achieved their greatest popularity in the early decades of the 20th century, when practiced worldwide and promoted by influential governments, institutions and individuals. Many countries impose a variety of eugenic policies, including: genetic examination, birth control, promoting different birth rates, marriage restrictions, separation (both racial segregation and mental illness detention), compulsory sterilization, forced abortion or forced pregnancy, ultimately culminating in genocide.
Nazism and decrease eugenics
The scientific reputation of eugenics began to decline in the 1930s, when Ernst RÃÆ'¼din used eugenics as justification for Nazi German racial policies. Adolf Hitler had praised and incorporated the eugenics ideas at Mein Kampf in 1925 and emulated eugenic laws for the sterilization of "defective items" pioneered in the United States once he took power. Some common early 20th century eugenics methods involve the identification and classification of individuals and their families, including the poor, mentally ill, blind, deaf, developmental defects, promiscuous women, homosexuals and racial groups (such as Rome and Jews in Nazi Germany) as "degenerate" or "unworthy", and therefore cause segregation, institutionalization, sterilization, euthanasia, and even mass killings. The Nazi euthanasia practice was performed on hospital patients at the Aktion T4 center such as Hartheim Castle.
At the end of World War II, many discriminatory eugenics laws were abandoned, after being linked with Nazi Germany. HG Wells, who had called for "sterilization of failure" in 1904, stated in his 1940 book The Rights of Man: Or What do we strive for? that among the human rights, which he believes should be available to all, is "the prohibition of mutilation, sterilization, torture, and corporal punishment". After World War II, the practice of "implementing measures intended to prevent birth in [a national, ethnic, racial or religious group]" falls within the definition of a new international genocide crime set forth in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The EU Fundamental Rights Charter also states "the prohibition of eugenic practices, especially those aimed at selecting people". Despite the decline in discriminatory eugenic laws, some government-mandated sterilization continues into the 21st century. For ten years President Alberto Fujimori led Peru from 1990 to 2000, 2,000 people allegedly deliberately sterilized. China maintains a one-child policy until 2015 as well as a series of other eugenic-based legislation to reduce population size and manage different levels of fertility of the population. In 2007 the UN reported forced sterilization and hysterectomy in Uzbekistan. During 2005 to 2013, nearly a third of the 144 sterile California prison inmates did not give legal approval for the operation.
The revival of modern interest
The development of genetic, genomic, and reproductive technologies at the end of the 20th century raises many questions about the status of egenetic ethics, which effectively creates a resurgence of interest in the subject. Some, like UC Berkeley sociologist Troy Duster, claim that modern genetics is the back door for eugenics. This view is shared by the Assistant Director of the White House for Forensic Science, Tania Simoncelli, who stated in a 2003 publication by the Population and Development Program at Hampshire College that progress in pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) moves society into a "new era" of eugenics, "and that is, unlike the Nazi eugenics, modern consumer-driven and market-based egenetics, "where children are increasingly perceived as consumer products made on order." In a 2006 newspaper article, Richard Dawkins said that the discussion of eugenics was hampered by shadows misuse of the Nazis, to the extent that some scientists will not admit that the breeding of human beings for certain abilities is entirely possible.He believes that it is not physically different from domestic animal farms for traits such as speed or grazing skills.K Dawkins feels that it is enough time to at least ask what is the ethical difference between the pemuli aan for ability versus train athletes or forcing children to take music lessons, although he can think of persuasive reasons to draw a difference.
Lee Kuan Yew, Founding Father of Singapore, started promoting eugenics since 1983.
In October 2015, the International Bioethics Committee of the United Nations wrote that the problem of human genetic engineering ethics should not be confused with the ethical problems of the 20th century eugenics movement. However, this is still problematic because it challenges the notion of human equality and opens up new forms of discrimination and stigmatization for those who do not want, or can not afford, technology.
Transhumanism is often associated with eugenics, although most transhumanists share the same view but distanced themselves from the term "eugenics" (preferring "germinal choice" or "reprogenetics") to avoid their confused positions with discredited theories and practices in the early twentieth century. 20- century eugenic movement.
Prenatal screening can be regarded as a contemporary eugenic form because it can lead to abortion in children with undesirable traits.
Maps Eugenics
Meaning and type
The term eugenics and its modern field of study was first formulated by Francis Galton in 1883, illustrating the work of Charles Darwin's half-cousin recently. Galton published his observations and conclusions in his book Questions to Human Faculty and its Development .
The origin of this concept begins with a particular interpretation of Mendel's inheritance and August Weismann's theory. The word eugenica is derived from the Greek eu ("good" or "good") and the suffix -gen? S ("born"), and was invented by Galton in 1883 to replace the word "stirpiculture", which had been used before but who had been ridiculed for perceived sexual nuances. Galton defines eugenics as "the study of all institutions under human control that can increase or impair the racial quality of future generations".
Historically, the term eugenics has referred to everything from prenatal care to the mother to forced sterilization and euthanasia. For population geneticists, this term includes avoiding inbreeding without altering allele frequencies; for example, J. B. S. Haldane writes that "motor buses, by breaking up living village communities, are powerful eugenic agents." The debate about what exactly counts as eugenics continues today.
Edwin Black, a journalist and author of War Against the Weak, claims eugenics is often regarded as pseudoscience because what is defined as genetic improvement of the desired trait is often regarded as a cultural choice rather than a problem that can be determined through objective scientific investigation. The most controversial eugenics aspect is the definition of "enhancement" of human genes, such as what are useful characteristics and what constitutes defects. Historically, this egenetic aspect has been tainted with racism and scientific pseudosain.
Early Eugenists largely relate to perceived intelligence factors that are often strongly correlated with social class. Some of these early eugenises included Karl Pearson and Walter Weldon, who worked on this at University College London.
Eugenika also has a place in medicine. In his lecture "Darwinism, Medical Progress, and Eugenics", Karl Pearson says that all the things that concern eugenics fall into the field of medicine. He basically puts the two words as equivalent. He was supported in part by the fact that Francis Galton, father of eugenics, also underwent medical training.
Eugenic policy is conceptually divided into two categories. Positive eigenetics are aimed at encouraging reproduction among genetically-beneficied people; for example, smart, healthy, and successful reproductions. Possible approaches include financial and political stimuli, targeted demographic analysis, in vitro fertilization, egg transplantation, and cloning. The Gattaca film provides a fictitious example of dystopian society that uses eugenics to decide what you can afford and your place in the world. Negative ethics aims to eliminate, through sterilization or segregation, which is considered physically, mentally, or morally "undesirable". These include abortion, sterilization, and other methods for family planning. Both positive and negative eugenics can be coercive; abortion for healthy women, for example, is illegal in Nazi Germany.
Jon Entine claims that eugenics simply means "good genes" and using them as a synonym for genocide is "an overly common distortion of the social history of genetic policy in the United States." According to Entine, eugenics evolved from the Progressive Era and not the "Twisted Hitler End Solution".
Implementation method
According to Richard Lynn, eugenics can be divided into two main categories based on the ways in which eugenic methods can be applied.
- Classic classical
- Negative eczema with the provision of information and services, ie unplanned pregnancy and birth abatement.
- Advocacy for sexual abstinence.
- Sex education at school.
- School-based clinics.
- Promote contraceptive use.
- Emergency contraception.
- Research for better contraception.
- Voluntary sterilization.
- Abortion.
- Negative ethics with incentives, coercion, and coercion.
- Incentives for sterilization.
- The Denver Dollar-a-day program, which pays the teenage mother for not getting pregnant again.
- Incentives for women about welfare for using contraception.
- Payments for sterilization in developing countries.
- Reduced benefits for welfare mothers.
- Sterilization must be "mentally retarded".
- Sterilization is mandatory for female criminals.
- Sterilization is mandatory for male criminals.
- License to parent.
- Positive eczema.
- Financial incentives to have children.
- Selective incentives for childbearing.
- Taxing children without children.
- The ethical obligations of the elites.
- Eugenic immigration.
- Negative eczema with the provision of information and services, ie unplanned pregnancy and birth abatement.
- New genetics
- Artificial insemination by donors.
- Donate eggs.
- Prenatal diagnosis of genetic abnormality and termination of pregnancy in the fetal defect.
- Embryo selection.
- Genetic engineering.
- Gene therapy.
- Clone.
Arguments
Benefits
The first major challenge for conventional eugenics based on genetic inheritance was made in 1915 by Thomas Hunt Morgan. He points to genetic mutations occurring outside the inheritance involving the discovery of the fruit fly hunt (Drosophila melanogaster ) with the white eyes of the family with red eyes. Morgan claims that this suggests that major genetic changes occur beyond inheritance and that the concept of eugenics based on genetic inheritance is not entirely scientifically accurate. In addition, Morgan criticized the view that subjective qualities, such as intelligence and criminality, are due to heredity as he believes that the definitions of these properties vary and that accurate work in genetics can only be done when the properties learned are accurate defined. Despite public rejection of eugenics by Morgan, much of his genetic research is absorbed by eugenics.
Heterozygous tests are used for early detection of recessive ailments, allowing couples to determine whether they risk passing genetic defects to the child's future. The purpose of this test is to estimate the possibility of passing off hereditary diseases to future offspring.
Recessive properties can be greatly reduced, but never eliminated unless the complete genetic makeup of all pool members is known, as mentioned earlier. Because only a few undesirable features, such as Huntington's disease, are dominant, it can be argued from a certain perspective that the practicality of "eliminating" properties is quite low.
There are instances of eugenic action that successfully decrease the prevalence of recessive disease, although it does not affect the prevalence of heterozygous carriers of the disease. The high prevalence of certain genetic communicable diseases among Ashkenazi Jews (Tay-Sachs, cystic fibrosis, Canavan disease, and Gaucher's disease), has declined in the current population by the application of genetic screening.
Pleiotropy occurs when one gene affects some seemingly unrelated phenotypic trait, for example phenylketonuria, which is a human disease that affects multiple systems but is caused by a gene defect. Andrzej P? Kalski, from the University of WrocÃ…,aw, argues that eugenics can lead to the loss of dangerous genetic diversity if the eugenics program selects the pleiotropic genes that might be attributed to positive traits. Pekalski uses the example of a government eugenics program that forces forbidding people with myopia from breeding but has undesirable consequences also chooses against high intelligence since both walk together.
Loss of genetic diversity
Eugenic policies can also lead to the loss of genetic diversity, in which case culturally accepted "improvements" of gene pools are likely - as evidenced in many examples in remote island populations - appearing in extinction due to increased susceptibility to disease, diminishing the ability to adapt to changes environment, and other known and unknown factors. Long-term species eugenic plans may lead to a similar scenario to this because the elimination of undesired traits reduces genetic diversity by definition.
Edward M. Miller claims that, in a single generation, any realistic program will make only minor changes in the gene fragments, giving plenty of time to reverse direction if unintended consequences arise, reducing the possibility of deleting the desired gene. Miller also believes that any meaningful diversity reduction so far in the future that needs little attention for now.
While the science of genetics has increasingly provided the means by which certain characteristics and conditions can be identified and understood, given the complexity of human genetics, culture, and psychology, at this point no agreed objective means determining properties that may ultimately be desirable or undesirable.. Some diseases such as sickle cell disease and cystic fibrosis each give immunity to malaria and resistance to cholera when one copy of the recessive allele is contained in the individual genotype. Reducing examples of sickle cell gene genes in Africa where malaria is a common and deadly disease can indeed have very negative net consequences.
However, some genetic diseases cause people to consider some eugenics.
Ethics
The social and political consequences of egenetics require a place in the discussion of the ethics behind the eugenics movement. Many ethical concerns about eugenics arise from controversial past, encouraging discussion of what, if any, places should be in the future. Progress in science has changed eugenics. In the past, eugenics had more to do with the sterilization and reproductive laws imposed. Now, at the progressively mapped genome of the genome, embryos can be tested for susceptibility to disease, sex, and genetic defects, and alternative reproductive methods such as in vitro fertilization are becoming more common. Therefore, eugenics is no longer an ex post facto living arrangement but a preemptive action in unborn babies.
However, with this change, there are ethical concerns that lack attention, and which must be addressed before eugenic policies can be properly implemented in the future. Sterilized people, for example, may volunteer for this procedure, even under pressure or pressure, or at least voice their opinions. An unborn fetus in which this new eugenic procedure is performed can not speak, because the fetus has no voice to approve or to express its opinion. Philosophers disagree about the proper framework for thinking about such acts, which change the identity and whereabouts of the people of the future.
Opposition
Eugenics common criticism is that "it certainly leads to unethical". Some people fear the "war of eugenics" in the future as a worst-case scenario: the return of discrimination genetics of supported countries and human rights violations such as compulsory sterilization of persons with genetic defects, homicide institutions and, in particular, segregation and genocide race are seen as inferior. Health law professor George Annas and technology law professor Lori Andrews, is a leading proponent of the position that the use of this technology could lead to human-posthuman caste warfare like that.
In his 2003 Sufficient: Staying Human at Age of Engineering, environmental ethicist Bill McKibben argued extensively against germ-selection technology and other advanced biotechnology strategies for human enhancement. He wrote that it would be morally wrong for humans to tamper with the underlying aspects of themselves (or their children) in the effort to overcome the limitations of universal humans, such as susceptibility to aging, maximum life span and biological constraints on physical and cognitive abilities. Efforts to "improve" themselves through such manipulation will remove the limitations that provide the context necessary for a meaningful human choice experience. He claims that human life no longer seems meaningful in a world where such limitations can be overcome by technology. Even the purpose of using germinal selection technology for therapeutic purposes must obviously be released, since it will surely result in the temptation to tamper with things like cognitive ability. He argues that it is possible for the public to benefit from releasing certain technologies, using examples of Chinese Ming, Tokugawa Japanese and contemporary Amish.
Support
Some, such as Nathaniel C. Convenience of Johns Hopkins University, claim that the shift from state-of-the-art reproductive genetic make-up to individual choice has moderated the worst of eugenic abuse by diverting decision-making from the state to patients and their families. Convenience shows that "eugenic encouragement encourages us to eliminate disease, live longer and healthier, with greater intelligence, and better adjustment to the condition of society, and the health benefits, intellectual sensations and advantages of genetically engineered bio-drugs are too good to we do the opposite. "Others, such as bioethicist Stephen Wilkinson of Keele University and Honorary Researcher Fellow Eve Garrard at the University of Manchester, claim that some aspects of modern genetics can be classified as eugenics, but this classification does not inherently make modern genetics immoral. In a publication co-authored by Keele University, they stated that "[e] ugenics does not seem to be always immoral, and the fact that PGD, and other forms of selective reproduction, may sometimes be technically eugenic, is not enough to show that they wrong. "
In their book, published in 2000, From Opportunity to Choice: Genetics and Justice, bioethics experts Allen Buchanan, Dan Brock, Norman Daniels and Daniel Wikler argue that liberal societies have an obligation to encourage widespread eugenic adoption. additional technology may (as long as the policy does not violate individual reproductive rights or impose undue pressure on prospective parents to use this technology) to maximize public health and minimize the inequalities that may result from both natural genetic inheritance and inequality access to genetic enhancement.
The original position, the hypothetical situation developed by the American philosopher John Rawls, has been used as an argument for negative eugenics .
See also
References
Note
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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