The Tudor period is between 1485 and 1603 in England and Wales and covers the Elizabethan period during the Elizabeth I administration until 1603. The Tudor period coincided with the House of Tudor dynasty in England where the first king was Henry VII (1457-1509 ). In terms of the entire range, the historian John Guy (1988) argues that "Britain is healthier, broader, and more optimistic under the Tudors" than at any time in a thousand years.
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Population and economy
After the Black Death and agricultural depression at the end of the 15th century, the population began to increase. It was less than 2 million in 1450, and about 4 million in 1600. The growing population stimulated economic growth, accelerated commercialization of agriculture, increased production and export of wool, boosted trade, and promoted London growth. Other cities are quite small.
The high wages and abundance of available land seen in the late 15th and early 16th centuries were replaced by low wages and land shortages. Inflationary pressures, possibly due to the entry of New World gold and rising populations, set the stage for social upheaval with a gap between the rich and poor widening. This was a period of significant change for most of the rural population, with the manorial authorities initiating a process of confinement of village land that had previously been open to all.
Maps Tudor period
English Reform
The Reformation changed the English religion during the Tudor period. The four rulers, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I have a completely different approach, with Henry replacing the pope as head of the Church of England but defending the Catholic doctrine, Edward imposing very strict Protestantism, Mary attempting to restore Catholicism, and Elizabeth arrived at a compromising position that defines a Protestant Church that is not Protestant enough in Britain. It began with the urgent demands of Henry VIII for the cancellation of his marriage that Pope Clement VII rejected.
Historians agree that Tudor's great historical theme is the Reformation, the British transformation from Catholicism to Protestantism. Major events, constitutional changes, and players at the national level have long been known, and major controversies about them are largely resolved. Historians to the end of the 20th century assume that they know what causes it: on the one hand, widespread dissatisfaction or even disgust with evil, corruption, failure, and contradictions of established religions, forming an anti-clericalism stance that demonstrates the truth for reform. The second less powerful influence was the intellectual impact of certain British reformers, such as the long-term effects of John Wycliffe (1328-1384) and his "Lollardy" reform movement, along with the flow of Ministries and Reformation pamphlets from Martin Luther. , John Calvin, and other reformers on this continent. Interpretation by Geoffrey Elton in 1960 is a representation of orthodox interpretation. He argues that:
- The situation proves untenable because the layman is afraid, hates, and hates many things about the Church, its officers, its court and its wealth.... A poor and indifferent low clergyman, a bishop and a rich abbot, a vast jurisdiction of jurisdiction, a mixture of high claims and low deeds makes no respect or love among the laity.
The social historian after 1960 began an in-depth investigation of English religion at the local level, and found orthodox interpretation quite erroneous. The Lollardy movement has largely been out of date, and the continental reformer pamphlet has barely reached more than a few scholars at Cambridge University - King Henry VIII has vehemently and publicly condemned Luther's heresy. More importantly, the Catholic Church was in a strong condition in 1500. Britain is a devout Catholic, faithful to the pope, the local parish attracts strong local financial support, religious services are quite popular both at Sunday Mass and on family devotions. Complaints about monasteries and bishops are rare. The kings get along well with the popes and by the time Luther shows up on the scene, England is one of the strongest supporters of Orthodox Catholicism, and it seems the most unlikely place for a religious revolution.
Tudor Government
Henry VII: 1485-1509
Henry VIII: 1509-1547Henry VIII, flamboyant, energetic, militaristic and stubborn, remains one of Britain's most visible kings, primarily because of his six marriages, all designed to produce male heirs, and his heavy retaliation in executing many high-ranking officials and aristocrats. In foreign policy, he focused on the battle of France - with little success - and had to deal with Scotland, Spain, and Holy Roman Empire, often with very expensive military mobilization or warfare that led to high taxes. The main military success came to Scotland. The main policy development is that Henry takes full control over the Church of England. This was followed from his break from Rome, caused by the Pope's refusal to cancel his original marriage. Thus, Henry introduced a very mild Protestant Reformation variation. There are two main aspects. First Henry rejects the Pope as head of the Church in England, insisting that national sovereignty requires the absolute supremacy of the king. Henry worked closely with the Parliament in passing a series of laws that applied the pause. The English can no longer appeal to Rome. All decisions must be made in England, ultimately by the King himself, and in practice by the chief aides such as Cardinal Wolsey and Thomas Cromwell. The parliament proved very supportive, with little dissent. The decisive steps came with the Act of Supremacy in 1534 that made the patron sovereign and only the supreme head of the church and the British priest. After Henry imposed heavy fines on the bishops, they almost all obeyed. The law of betrayal is so strong that the difference of opinion itself is betrayal. There were several short-lived peoples' rebellions that were quickly suppressed. The league level in terms of aristocracy and the Church is very supportive. The most visible major rejection came from Bishop Fisher and Chancellor Thomas More; they were both executed. Among the senior nobles, the problem came from the Pole family, who supported Reginald Pole who was in exile in Europe. Henry destroys other family members, executes his leader, and seizes all his properties. The second stage involves seizure of monasteries. The monasteries that run religious and charitable institutions are closed, the monks and nuns are retired, and the precious lands are sold to the King's friends, resulting in a large, rich, and courteous class that supports Henry. In terms of theology and rituals there is little change, because Henry wants to defend most of the Catholic elements and hate the "heresy" of Martin Luther and other reformers.
Biographer J.J. Scarisbrick said that Henry deserved his traditional title as 'The Father of the British Navy.' It became his personal weapon, his toy, his passion. He inherited seven small warships from his father, and added two dozen more in 1514. In addition to those who built in England, he bought Italian warships and Hanseatic. In March 1513, he proudly watched his fleet sail down the Thames under Sir Edmund Howard's command. It is the most powerful naval force currently in British history: 24 vessels led by 1600 tons of "Henry Imperial"; the fleet carrying 5000 marine combat and 3000 sailors. It forced the losing number of French fleets to port, took control of the English Channel, and blocked Brest. Henry was the first king to administer the navy as a permanent force, with a permanent administrative and logistical structure, funded by tax revenues. His personal attention was concentrated on land, where he set up a royal shipyard, planted trees for shipbuilding, established laws for ground navigation, guarded coastlines with fortress, set up schools for navigation and defined the roles of officers and sailors. He closely monitored the construction of all his warships and his weapons, knowing their designs, speed, tonnage, weaponry and battle tactics. He encouraged his naval architects, who refined the technique of installing Italian rifles at the waist of the ship, thereby lowering the center of gravity and making it a better platform. He oversees the smallest details and enjoys nothing more than leading the launch of the new ship. He spends his money on military and naval affairs, diverting income from new taxes and the sale of monastic lands.
Elton argues that Henry did build a Navy organization and infrastructure, but it was not a useful weapon for his war style. It does not have a useful strategy. It serves for defense against the invasion, and to enhance the UK's international prestige.
Cardan Wolsey
Professor Sara Nair James said that in 1515-1529 Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, "will be the most powerful man in England except, perhaps, for the king." Historian John Guy describes the Wolsey method:
- Only in the widest sense is he [the king] making an independent decision.... It is Wolsey who almost always calculates the available options and ranks for royal considerations; which specifies the parameters of each successive debate; which controls the flow of official information; who elects the secretary of the king, middle level officials, and JP; and who decides on their own most have been formed, if not actually taken.
Operating with the strong support of the king, and with special powers over the church given by the Pope, Wolsey dominates civil affairs, administration, law, church, and foreign policy. He's incredibly energetic and far-reaching. In terms of achievement, he builds great fortune for himself, and is a major contributor to art, humanities, and education. He projected many reforms, but in the end the British government did not change much. For all appointments, there is little record of achievement. From the king's point of view, his greatest failure was his inability to divorce when Henry VIII needed a new wife to give him a son who would be the heir to the undisputed throne. Historians agree that Wolsey is disappointing. In the end, he conspires with Henry's enemy, and dies of natural causes before he can be beheaded.
Thomas Cromwell
Historian Geoffrey Elton argues that Thomas Cromwell, who was Henry VIII's chief minister from 1532 to 1540, not only removed British Church control from the Pope's hands but also transformed England with an unprecedented modern and bureaucratic government. Cromwell (1485-1540) replaced medieval government-as-medieval management. Cromwell introduced reforms into the administration that outlines the King's household from the state and created a modern government. He injected the Tudor power into darker corners of the world and radically changed the role of the British Parliament. This transition took place in the 1530s, Elton argues, and should be considered as part of a planned revolution. Elton's point was that before Cromwell's kingdom could be seen when the king's personal treasures were large, in which most administration was performed by the King's servants rather than the separate state offices. By orchestrating this reform, Cromwell laid the foundations of stability and the future success of England. Cromwell's luck ran out when he chose the wrong bride for the King; he was beheaded for treason, Recently historians have emphasized that kings and others play a strong role as well.
Dissolution of Monasteries: 1536-1540
The king has annual revenues of around Ã, Â £ 100,000, but he needs more to suppress the rebellion and finance his foreign adventures. In 1533, for example, military spending on the northern border cost £ 25,000, while 1534 uprisings in Ireland cost £ 38,000. Pressing the Pilgrimage Grace is worth £ 50,000, and the new king's palace is expensive. Meanwhile, the income of customs declined. The Church has annual revenues of around Ã, Â £ 300,000; a new tax of 10% is charged which carries around Ã, Â £ 30,000. To get larger amounts, it is proposed to seize land owned by monasteries, some of which are monks farmed and mostly rented out to the local nobility. Taking possession means that rents fall to the king. Selling land to nobles at a bargain price brings 1 million pounds in a single income and gives the nobility a stake in government. The payment of the clergy of First Fruits and Tenths, previously given to the pope, is now handed over to the king. Overall, between 1536 and Henry's death, his government collected £ 1.3m; this huge cash infusion caused Cromwell to change Crown's financial system to manage money. He created new state departments and new officials to collect the results of the dissolution and the First and Tenth Fruits. Court Augmentations and a number of departments mean more and more officials, which make revenue management the main activity. Cromwell's new system is very efficient with far less corruption or secret rewards or bribes than ever before. The disadvantage is the multiplication of departments whose only unifying agent is Cromwell; his fall caused confusion and uncertainty; the solution is even more dependent on the bureaucratic institution and the new Advisory Council.
Winchester Role
In stark contrast to his father, Henry VIII spent a lot of money, in terms of military operations in Britain and in France, and in building a huge palace network. How to pay for it remains a serious issue. More and more departments mean many new paid bureaucrats. There were further financial and administrative difficulties in 1540-58, exacerbated by war, abatement, corruption and inefficiency, mainly due to Somerset. After the fall of Cromwell, William Paulet, 1 Marquess of Winchester, Lord's Treasurer, resulted in further reforms to simplify the arrangements, reforms that united most of the finances of the crown under the treasury. General surveyor courts and augmentations are incorporated into the new Augmentations Court, and these are subsequently absorbed into the treasury together with the First and Tenth Fruits.
Impact of war
At the end of his reign, Henry VII's peacetime income was approximately Ã,  £ 113,000, where the import duty was around Ã,  £ 40,000. There was little debt, and he left his son a great deal of treasure. Henry VIII spends a lot of money on luxuries, such as rugs and palaces, but his general peace-time budget is satisfactory. Heavy tensions come from warfare, including building defenses, building navies, suppressing insurgencies, fighting with Scotland, and engaging in very costly continental warfare. Henry Continental wars gave him a bit of glory or diplomatic influence, and no territory. Nevertheless, the battles of 1511 to 1514 with three large expeditions and two smaller ones cost 912,000 pounds. The Boulogne Campaign of 1544 cost Ã, £ 1,342,000 and the war against Scotland Ã, £ 954,000; naval warfare for Ã,  £ 149,000 and large sums spent on building and defending inland and coastal strongholds. The total cost of war and defense between 1539-1547 is over  £ 2,000,000, although accounting procedures are too primitive to provide an accurate total. Added everything, about 35% came from taxes, 32% of land sales and monastery ownership, and 30% of lowered currencies. The cost of war in the short Edward VI government was  £ Ã,1387,000.
After 1540, the Privy Casket is responsible for 'secret affairs', especially for war financing. Royal Mint is used to generate income by lowering the currency; government profit in 1547-51 is Ã, Â £ 1.2 million. However, under the direction of the Northumberland Regent, Edward's war ended. The mint no longer generates additional revenue after the debasement was terminated in 1551.
Edward VI: 1547-1553
Although Henry was in his mid-fifties, his health deteriorated rapidly in 1546. As the conservative faction, led by Bishops Stephen Gardiner and Thomas Howard, the 3rd Duke of Norfolk who opposed religious reform appeared to be in power, and was ready to take over the government of a nine-year-old boy who became the heir to the throne. However, when the king died, pro-reform factions abruptly conquered the new king, and the District Council, under the leadership of Edward Seymour. The bishop of Gardiner was discredited, and the Duke of Norfolk was imprisoned for all the new kingdoms.
The short reign of Edward VI marks the victory of Protestants in England. Somerset, the elder brother of the late Queen Seymour (married to Henry VIII) and King Edward VI's uncle had a successful military career. When the boy's king was crowned, Somerset became Lord Protector of the kingdom and essentially ruled England from 1547 to 1549. Seymour led an expensive and unconvincing war with Scotland. His religious policy angered Catholics. Purgatory is rejected so there is no need to pray for saints, relics, and statues, or for the masses of the dead. Around 2400 permanent endowments called chantries are established that support thousands of priests who celebrate mass for the dead, or operate schools or hospitals to earn grace for the soul in purgatory. The donation was seized by Cromwell in 1547. Historians have compared the efficiency of Somerset's takeover of power in 1547 to the subsequent cruelty of his rule. In the autumn of 1549, his costly war had lost momentum, his crown was financially ruined, and riots and rebellions broke out across the country. He was overthrown by his former ally John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland 1.
Until the last few decades, Somerset's reputation with historians has been very high, given the many statements that seem to support ordinary people against the greedy landlords. At the beginning of the 20th century, this sentence was taken by influential A. F. Pollard, to be echoed by leading biographer Edward VI, W. K. Jordan. A more critical approach was initiated by M. Lush and Dale Hoak in the mid-1970s. Since then, Somerset has often been described as an arrogant ruler, with no political and administrative skills necessary to govern the Tudor state.
In contrast, Dudley moved quickly after taking over an almost bankrupt administration in 1549. Working with his chief aide, William Cecil, Dudley ended an expensive war with France and Scotland and handled finances in ways that led to economic recovery. To prevent further insurrections he introduced police throughout the country, pointing to Lords Lieutenants who were closely related to London, and established what was considered a standing national army. In collaboration with Thomas Cramner, Archbishop of Canterbury, Dudley pursued an aggressive Protestant religious policy. They promote radical reformers to high Church positions, with Catholic bishops attacked. The use of Book of Common Prayer became law in 1549; prayer must be in English not Latin. The Mass is no longer celebrated, and preaching becomes the center of the ministry of the church.
Purgatory, Protestantism states, is a Catholic superstition that falsified the Scriptures. Prayer for the dead is useless because there is nothing really in Purgatory. It follows that prayer to the saints, the worship of relics, and the worship of the statue are all useless superstitions that must end. For centuries the devout English have created a waqf called chantries designed as good deeds that produce grace to help them emerge from purgatory after they die. Many chantries are altars or chapels in a church, or a waqf that supports thousands of priests who say Mass for the dead. In addition there are many schools and hospitals established as good jobs. In 1547 the new law closed 2,374 chantries and confiscated their assets. Although the law requires money to go to "charities" and "public goods", most seem to have been sent to court friends. The historian A.G. Dickens concludes:
- To Catholic opinion, the problem caused by the seizure of this law... is the disappearance of a great clerical society from their midst, the silencing of the masses, the breaking of visible and spiritual ties, more than that. for centuries has connected the rough provincial man with the extraordinary world of Faith.... The dissolution of Edwardus has had a profound effect on religion. Most proved destructive, because while it helped hinder the revival of Catholic devotion it clearly contained elements that hurt the reputation of Protestantism.
New Protestant Orthodoxy for the Church of England was expressed in the Forty-two Articles of Faith in 1553. But when the king suddenly died, Dudley's last-minute effort to make his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Gray, the new ruler failed. Queen Mary took over and decapitated her.
Mary I: 1553-1558
Mary was the daughter of Henry VIII by Catherine of Aragon; he is very close to the Catholic heritage of Spain. He is next in line for the throne. However, in 1553 when Edward VI lay dying, he and the Duke of Northumberland planned to make his nephew Lady Jane Gray as the new Queen. Northumberland wants to keep control of the government, and promote Protestantism. Edward signed a plan to change the succession, but it was not valid, because only Parliament could change its own action. Edward's Privy Council kept the secret of his death for three days to install Lady Jane, but Northumberland had neglected to control Princess Mary. He ran away and organized a group of supporters, who proclaimed his queen across the country. The Privy Council leaves Northumberland, and proclaims Mary to be ruler after nine days of mock Jane Jane. Queen Mary imprisons Lady Jane and executes Northumberland.
The Protestant writers at the time took a very negative view, blowing it up as "Bloody Mary". John Knox attacked him in the First Trumpet Blast against the Terrible Regiment of Women 1558, and he was clearly vilified in Actes and Monuments (1563), by John Foxe. Foxe's book teaches Protestants over the centuries that Mary is a bloodthirsty tyrant. In the mid-20th century, H. F. M. Prescott sought to improve the tradition that Maria was intolerant and authoritarian by writing more objectively, and scholarship since then tends to see older, simpler, partisan judgments of Mary with greater skepticism.
Haigh concluded that "the last years of Mary's reign were not a terrible preparation for Protestant victory, but the consolidation of a sustained Catholic power." Catholic historians, like John Lingard, argue that Mary's policies fail not because they are wrong, but because they are too short to set them. In other countries, the Catholic Counter-Reformation was spearheaded by Jesuit missionaries; Mary's religious adviser, Cardinal Pole, refused to allow Jesuits in Britain. Spain is widely seen as an enemy, and his marriage to King Phillip II of Spain is very unpopular, although he practically has no role in British government and they have no children. Calais's military loss to France was a bitter humiliation to British pride. Harvest failed to increase public discontent. Although Mary's rule was ultimately ineffective and unpopular, her innovations on fiscal reform, naval expansion, and colonial exploration were later touted as Elizabethan achievements.
Elizabeth I: 1558-1603
Historians often describe Elizabethan government as a golden age in British history in terms of political, social and cultural developments, and compared to the European Continent. Calling him "Gloriana" and using the Britannian symbol beginning in 1572 marks Elizabethan times as a revival inspiring national pride through classical ideals, international expansion, and the dreaded and dreaded Spanish naval crown. The Elizabethan government marked a decisive turning point in the history of English religion, as a predominantly Catholic-dominated state in the early days of Protestant domination in the end. Although Elizabeth executed 250 Catholic priests, she also executed some extreme Puritans, and overall she sought a moderate conservative position that blended the Kingdom's control over the church (with no role of people), combined with Catholic-dominated rituals, and Calvinist-dominated theology.
Scotland Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots
Mary, Queen of Scots (living 1542-87) was a devout Catholic and subsequent in line for the British throne after Elizabeth. His status became a major domestic and international issue for the UK. After the death of King James IV at the Battle of Flodden in 1513. The result was years of struggle to seize the throne, nominally held by the infant king James V (living 1512-42, reigning 1513-42), until he came of age in 1528.
Mary of Guise (living 1515-60) is a French woman close to the French throne. He reigned as a regent for his teenage daughter, Queen Mary, 1554-60. The Bupati and his daughter are strong supporters of the Catholics and seek to suppress rapid Protestant growth in Scotland. Mary of Guise is a strong advocate of Protestantism, and works to defend a close alliance between Scotland and France, called the Auld Alliance. In 1559, the Bupati became concerned that widespread Scottish hostility towards the French government reinforced partisan reasons, thus forbidding unauthorized discourse. But the fiery preacher John Knox sent the Scots flaming with his preaching, leading a powerful Scottish aristocratic coalition, calling themselves the Lords of the Congregation lifting up the insurgency to overthrow the Catholic Church and seize its land. The Lords begged Elizabeth for English help, but she played a very careful hand. The 1559 Agreement with France calls for peace and he does not want to break it, especially since Britain has no allies at that time. Supporting the rebels against the legitimate rulers violates Elizabeth's claims that are held firmly against the legitimacy of all nobles. On the other hand, France's victory in Scotland will establish a Catholic country on the northern border supported by a strong French enemy. Elizabeth first sent the money, then sent the artillery, then sent a fleet that destroyed the French fleet in Scotland. Finally he sent 8,000 troops to the north. Mary of Guise's death allowed England, France and Scotland to reach agreement in the Edinburgh Treaty in 1560, which had far-reaching consequences. France permanently withdraws its troops from Scotland. This ensured the success of the Reformation in Scotland; it begins a century of peace with France; it put an end to the threat of Scottish invasion; and it paved the way for the unity of the two kingdoms in 1603 when the Scottish king James VI inherited the British throne as James I and launched the Stuart era.
When the treaty was signed, Mary was in Paris as the wife of French King Francis II. When he died in 1561, he returned to Scotland as Queen of Scots. However, when Elizabeth refused to recognize him as the heir to the British throne, Mary rejected the Edinburgh Covenant. He made an unfavorable marriage with Lord Darnley who persecuted him and killed his favorite Italian David Rizzio. Darnley was in turn killed by Earl of Bothwell. He was freed from murder; he quickly married Bothwell. Most people at the time thought he was deeply involved in adultery or murder; historians argue at length and have not yet decided. But the rebellion broke out and the Protestant nobles defeated the Queen's forces in 1567. He was forced to abdicate for his infant son, James VI; he fled to England, where Elizabeth restricted him and house arrest for 19 years. Mary is involved in many complex plots to kill Elizabeth and become her own queen. Finally, Elizabeth caught him plotting the Babington Plot and executing it in 1587.
Troubled years later: 1585-1603
The last two decades Elizabeth saw the heightened problem Stuart left behind to solve after 1603. John Cramsie, in reviewing the recent scholarship in 2003, argues:
- the period 1585-1603 is now recognized by scholars as clearly more problematic than the first half of Elizabeth's long reign. Expensive warfare against Spain and Ireland, involvement in the Netherlands, socio-economic hardships and authoritarian alterations by the regime all throw a veil over the last years of Gloriana, which underlies exhaustion with queen powers and open criticism of his rule and his failure..
Elizabeth remains a strong leader, but almost all of her former counselors either died or retired. Robert Cecil (1563-1612) took over the role of a prominent adviser held by his father Lord Burghley. Robert Devereux, the 2nd Earl of Essex (1567-1601) was his most prominent general, the role previously held by his stepfather Robert Dudley, who was the love of Elizabethan life; and adventurer/historian Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) is a new face on the scene. The three new men form a triangle of interlocking and opposite forces that are difficult to penetrate. The first void came in 1601, when Devereux was executed for trying to take the Queen's prisoner and seize power. After Elizabeth died, the new king continued to accompany Cecil as his chief counselor, and beheaded Raleigh.
Popular rebellion
Many popular rebellions happen; all oppressed by the royal authority. The biggest ones are:
- The biggest and most serious is the Pilgrimage of Grace. This disrupted the North of England in 1536 protesting Henry VIII's religious reforms, the Dissolution of his Monastery and the policy of the chief minister of the King, Thomas Cromwell, as well as certain other political, social and economic complaints.
- The Rebellion of the Prayer Book or the "Western Awakening" was a popular uprising in Devon and Cornwall in 1549. The Royal Courts introduced the Book of Common Prayer , based on Protestant theology and exclusive use of the English language. The change is very unpopular - especially in the area of ​​faithful Catholic faithfulness, and in Cornwall where standard English is unpopular.
- The Kett Revolt began in 1549 in Norfolk; this began as a demonstration against ordinary land protection. The instigator, Robert Kett, was executed for treason.
- The Wyatt uprising in 1554 against Queen Mary I's determination to marry Philip of Spain and named Thomas Wyatt, one of its leaders.
- The Northern Awakening or "Northern Uprising" of 1569-70 was a failed attempt by Catholic nobles from Northern England to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I of England and succeed him with Mary, Queen of Scots. This comes from the bitter political split in the Royal Privy Concil. The extension of Tudor authority in northern England caused dissatisfaction among aristocracies and nobles, as the new Protestant bishops tried to restore former church land and alienate their new owners. The local Catholic elements are largely populated and hate the destruction of rituals and practices. As the Royal army approached, the leaders dispersed their troops and fled to Scotland. Some of the leaders were executed, but many of the nobles saved their lives by surrendering their lands to Queen Elizabeth. Local government
Local government officials operating at the district level (also called "shire") are the sheriffs and Lord Lieutenant. the strength of the sheriff has declined since medieval times, but he is still very prestigious. He was appointed for a one-year term, without extension, by the King's Advisory Board. He paid a lot of small fees, but they may not meet the cost of the sheriff in terms of hospitality and hire under the sheriff and bailiff. The sheriff conducts courts every month to deal with civil and criminal cases. He oversees elections, runs prisons and punishes. His subordinates provide staff to district peace judges.
Lord Lieutenant is the new office created by Henry VIII to represent the power of the kingdom in every region. He was a person with a pretty good connection in court to be elected by the king and serve the king's pleasure, often for decades. He had limited direct control power, so the successful Lord Lieutenants worked with his lieutenant's deputy and dealt with the nobility through compromise, consensus, and the inclusion of opposing factions. He was in charge of mobilizing the militia if necessary for defense, or to assist the king in military operations. In Yorkshire in 1588, Lord Lieutenant was the Earl of Huntington, much needed to prepare for defense in the face of the threatened invasion of the Spanish Armada. The Queen's Privy Council immediately called him to mobilize the militia, and reported the availability of men and horses. Huntington's challenge was to overcome the reluctance of many militia, lack of weapons, training accidents, and jealousy among the nobles who would order which units. Despite Huntingdon's recent attempts, the mobilization of 1588 revealed a reluctant society that was simply reluctant to answer calls to weapons. The fleet never landed, and the militias were not really used. During the mid-seventeenth-century civil war, Lord Lieutenant played a more important role in mobilizing his territory either for kings or for Parliament.
The daily government business is in the hands of several dozen peace judges (JP). They handle all the actual routine police administration functions, and are paid through a modest cost-rate. Other local officials include police, church officials, mayors, and townspeople. JP's tasks involve a lot of documents - especially in Latin - and attracting very strong candidates. For example, The 55 JP in the office holding Devonshire in 1592 included: Sir Francis Drake, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, Gilberts, Carews, Seymours, Courtenays, and other prominent names among the people who laid the foundation of British maritime greatness and American existence. From fifty-five, twenty-eight at a time or another county sheriff, twenty again then, or afterward, a knight, six sitting in the House of Commons, and three in the House of Lords./dd>
Social history and daily life
The cultural achievements of the Elizabethan era have long attracted scholars, and since the 1960s they have conducted intensive research on British social history.
Monarchs
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